Ligands designed to provide highly active catalyst complexes

ABSTRACT

A series of ligands with site specific electron donating substituents that form a catalyst complex with a transition metal and are suitable for catalysis of atom transfer radical reactions, including ATRP are described. Faster catalysis rates were observed allowing for low catalyst concentrations and linear increases in molecular weight with monomer conversion, and narrow molecular weight distributions. Cyclic voltammetry revealed that increasing the strength and number of conjugated electron donating groups resulted in more stable complexes and larger ATRP equilibrium constants.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/634,113, filed Feb. 23, 2012, the disclosure of which is incorporated in its entirety by this reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure relates to the design of ligands that provide highly active catalyst systems comprising said ligands. The ligands comprise site specific electron donating substituents which greatly enhance the catalytic activity of the transition metal/ligand complex, including in atom transfer reactions and processes for polymerization of olefinic monomers using said catalyst systems at ppm levels. This application incorporates the text of two published papers based on the provisional application; Matyjaszewski et al.; ACS Macro Lett. 2012, 1, 508-512 and 1037-1040, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

As disclosed herein the rational design of ligands provides a powerful tool to manipulate and improve transition metal catalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). ATRP is considered to be one of the most successful controlled radical polymerization processes with significant commercial potential for production of many specialty materials including coatings, sealants, adhesives, dispersants, materials for health and beauty products, electronics and biomedical applications. The process, including suitable transition metals and state of the art ligands, range of polymerizable monomers and materials prepared by the process, has been thoroughly described in a series of co-assigned U.S. Patents and Applications including U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,763,548; 5,807,937; 5,789,487; 5,945,491; 6,111,022; 6,121,371; 6,124,411; 6,162,882; 6,407,187; 6,512,060; 6,538,091; 6,541,580; 6,624,262; 6,624,263; 6,627,314; 6,759,491; 6,790,919; 6,887,962; 7,019,082; 7,049,373; 7,064,166; 7,125,938; 7,157,530; 7,332,550; 7,572,874; 7,678,869; 7,795,355; 7,825,199; 7,893,173; 7,893,174, 8,252,880, 8,273,823; and 8,349,410 and U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/548,354; 12/311,673; 12/921,296; 12/877,589; 12/949,466; 13/026,919; 13/260504 and 13/390470 all of which are herein incorporated by reference. These prior art patents describe the range of (co)polymerizable monomers and procedure to control the topology, architecture and ability to incorporate site specific functionality into copolymers prepared by ATRP in addition to detailing a range of composite structures that can be prepared by “grafting from” or “grafting to” a broad range of organic or inorganic materials.

ATRP has also been discussed in numerous publications with Matyjaszewski as co-author and reviewed in several book chapters: Matyjaszewski, K. et al. ACS Symp. Ser. 1998, 685, 258-283; ACS Symp. Ser. 1998, 713, 96-112; ACS Symp. Ser. 2000, 729, 270-283; ACS Symp. Ser. 2000, 765, 52-71; ACS Symp. Ser. 2000, 768, 2-26; ACS Symposium Series 2003, 854, 2-9; ACS Symp. Ser. 2009, 1023, 3-13; ACS Symp. Ser. 2012, 1100, 145-170; Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 2921-2990; Chem Rev 2007, 107, 2270-2299 and Prog. Polym. Sci., 2007, 32, 93-146. These publications are incorporated by reference to provide additional information on the range of suitable transition metals that can participate in the redox reaction, whose generally accepted mechanism is shown in Scheme 1, and provide a prior art list of suitable ligands for the different transition metals to form transition metal complexes suitable for polymerizing a broad range of radically polymerizable (co)monomers.

Any transition metal complex (M_(t) ^(n)/L) capable of maintaining the dynamic equilibrium through participation in a redox reaction comprising the transferable atom or group present on each initiator or dormant polymer chain (P_(n)-X) to form an active radical (P_(n)*) and higher oxidation state transition metal complex (X-Mt_(n) ⁺¹/L) that acts as the deactivator, may be used as the catalyst in ATRP. The creation and maintenance of a low concentration of active species, (P_(n).), reduces the probability of bimolecular termination reactions, (k_(t)), which leads to a radical polymerization process that behaves as a “living” system through retention of the stable transferable atom or group (—X) on the vast majority of growing dormant chain ends. The most frequently used ATRP procedure is based on a simple reversible halogen atom transfer catalyzed by redox active transition metal compounds, most frequently copper or iron, that form a catalyst complex with a ligand, most frequently nitrogen based ligands that modify the solubility and activity of the catalyst. The rate of the polymerization, K_(ATRP), is defined by the ratio of activation (k_(a)) and deactivation (k_(d)) rate constants and the catalyst complex should be selected to favor the dormant state ensuring concurrent growth of each polymer chain and minimizing the [P_(n).], Scheme 1. In this equilibrium, P_(n). can deactivate by reaction with X—Cu^(II)/L, propagate with monomer (k_(p)), or terminate (k_(t)) with other radicals proportional to their corresponding rate constants. The ATRP equilibrium is also heavily dependent on four main reaction process variables: temperature, [Macromolecules 2009, 42, 6050-6055] pressure, [Macromol. Chem. Phys. 2011, 212, 2423-2428.] solvent, [Macromolecules 2009, 42, 6348-6360.] and selected alkyl halide/catalyst. [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713]. Of these four variables, the strongest influences reside with the polymerization solvent and catalyst, each spanning values over a range of 1×10⁸. The procedure is a simple procedure which may be carried out in bulk, in the presence of organic solvents or in water, under homogeneous or heterogeneous conditions, in ionic liquids, and in supercritical CO₂.

Early ATRP procedures employed catalyst complexes that are now recognized to be low activity [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713], and required addition of a sufficiently high concentration of the transition metal complex to overcome the effect of unavoidable increased concentration of the deactivator in the reaction medium due to radical-radical termination reactions while still driving the reaction to the desired degree of polymerization in a reasonable time frame while retaining chain end functionality. Recently novel approaches were developed that allowed regeneration of the lower oxidation state transition metal complex resulting in a significant reduction in the concentration of added catalyst. [PCT Int. Appl. WO 2005/087819] The driving force for this advance was the economic penalty associated with purification procedures, resulting from early procedures with less active catalyst complexes resulting in high concentrations of catalyst in the final product, coupled with a deeper understanding of the ATRP rate law, equation (1), which shows that R_(p), the polymerization rate, depends only on the ratio of the concentration of [Cu^(I)] to [X—Cu^(II)], and does NOT depend on the absolute concentration of the copper complexes, therefore in principle, one could reduce the absolute amount of copper complex to ppm levels without affecting the polymerization rate.

$\begin{matrix} {R_{p} = {{{k_{p}\lbrack M\rbrack}\left\lbrack P^{\bullet} \right\rbrack} = {{k_{p}\lbrack M\rbrack}{K_{eq}\lbrack I\rbrack}_{o}\frac{\left\lbrack {Cu}^{I} \right\rbrack}{\left\lbrack {X - {Cu}^{II}} \right\rbrack}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

As discussed in the above incorporated references, ATRP is one of the most powerful controlled/living radical polymerization (CLRP) techniques available for the synthesis of well-defined macromolecules under versatile, industrially scalable, experimental conditions. With such a technique the synthetic polymer chemist may precisely design macromolecular architectures with predetermined molecular weights (M_(n)) and narrow molecular weight distributions (M_(w)/M_(n)). ATRP's utility encompasses a vast library of functional monomers, from radically copolymerizable (methyl)acrylates to styrenics and acrylamides, that can be conducted in a range of solvents (i.e. aqueous to organic), generating products with multiple potential macromolecular architectures (e.g. stars and brushes), in a range of reaction media (e.g. dispersions, emulsions, and homogenous systems).

Despite these successes, a need exists to further improve the efficiency and versatility of ATRP through optimization and development of novel catalysts [Prog. Polym. Sci. 2010, 35, 959-1021]. As described herein, the development of more active catalyst complexes may also provide an opportunity to reduce the concentration of catalyst required to drive the reaction to completion, allow one to run the reaction under milder conditions in aqueous solutions [Macromolecules 2012, 45, 6371-6379], and expand the scope of radically copolymerizable monomers to include less active monomers such as N-vinylpyrolidone, vinyl acetate and acid containing monomers such as (meth)acrylic acid. Likewise it may also expand the rage of molecules that can participate in atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) reactions and atom transfer radical coupling (ATRC) reactions [Encycl. Radicals Chem., Biol. Mater. 2012, 4, 1851-1894 sections 1.2 and 8.2].

The preparation of transition metal catalyst complexes provides a certain degree of synthetic freedom in ligand design that can manipulate and tune catalytic properties. However, as disclosed herein, the scope of designed catalyst complexes had not yet been truly exploited in ATRP. Prior to the present disclosure some of the most commonly employed and effective ligands in ATRP were tris(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)amine (Me₆TREN) [Macromolecules 1998, 31, 5958-5959] and tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (TPMA) [Macromolecules 1999, 32, 2434-2437], each of which are a thousand times more active than the originally used copper based catalyst complex utilizing 2,2′-bipyridine (bpy) ligands [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1995, 117, 5614-15 and Macromolecules 1995, 28, 7901-10.].

A variety of strategies exist to manipulate catalytic activity and properties through ligand design. Indeed ligand modifications are prevalent with bpy type ligands, the class of ligands first successfully employed in copper-mediated ATRP, to provide unique properties for complexes used in asymmetric catalysis such as use of chiral 2,2′-bipyridyl ligands coordinated to Mo, Cu and Pd for allylic oxidation, [Organometallics 2001, 20, 673-690] luminescence and pH sensitivity, [Inorg. Chem. 2000, 39, 76-84] and enhanced photocatalytic activity for Ru based catalysts. [Inorg. Chem. 2012, 51, 51-62]. However, despite the vast array of modifications available to these bpy ligands, limited examples [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713] of structure-reactivity relationships exist with regard to substituents present in ligands for copper or iron based catalyst complexes suitable for an ATRP.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure describes ligands for forming catalyst complexes suitable for use in atom transfer radical addition, atom transfer radical coupling and controlled radical polymerization reaction processes.

According to a first embodiment, the present disclosure provides a catalyst complex for a redox-based atom transfer radical addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the catalyst comprising a transition metal and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents.

In other embodiments, the present disclosure provides a ligand for forming a transition metal catalyst capable of catalyzing a redox-based atom transfer radial addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction, or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the ligand comprising from 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, wherein the ligand forms a ligand/metal catalyst complex with the transition metal.

Still other embodiments of the present disclosure provide a system for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction comprising radically (co)polymerizable monomers, an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups, less than or equal to 500 ppm of a catalyst complex and optionally, a solvent. The catalyst complex comprises a transition metal, and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents. In other embodiments, the system may comprise less than or equal to 250 ppm, less than or equal to 100 ppm, less than or equal to 50 ppm or even less than or equal to 10 ppm of the catalyst complex.

Further embodiments of the present disclosure provide a transition metal mediated controlled polymerization process comprising polymerizing radically (co)polymerizable monomer(s) in the presence of an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups, less than 500 ppm of a catalyst complex, and optionally, a solvent. The catalyst complex comprises a transition metal and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents. In other embodiments, the system may comprise less than or equal to 250 ppm, less than or equal to 100 ppm, less than or equal to 50 ppm or even less than or equal to 10 ppm of the catalyst complex.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The various embodiments of the present disclosure may be better understood when read in conjunction with the following Figures in which:

FIG. 1: FIG. 1A illustrates CVs of copper complexes formed with substituted bpy ligands. FIG. 1B illustrates a graph showing the existence of a relationship between E_(1/2) and K_(ATRP) for different copper based catalyst complexes.

FIG. 2: FIG. 2A illustrates a first-order kinetic plot and FIG. 2B illustrates evolution of M_(n) and M_(w)/M_(n) versus conversion for ATRP reactions conducted with various R-bpy ligands. Polymerizations were conducted with 5.55 M MA in 50 (v/v) % DMSO at 60° C. using the molar ratios of reagents: [MA]:[EBiB]:[R-bpy]:[CuBr]:[CuBr₂]=200:1:2:0.9:0.1.

FIG. 3: Shows the electrochemical characterization of the Cu/TPMA*-3 catalyst; FIG. 3A displays the effect of different counterions and FIG. 3B shows the effect of an added ATRP initiator.

FIG. 4: Displays the NMR spectrum of 4,4′-(dimethylamino)-2,2′-bipyridine.

FIG. 5. Shows stopped flow measurement of k_(a) using TPMA*-2 ligand.

FIG. 6. Kinetic plots for of ICAR runs with: 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 50 ppm and 100 ppm Cu/TPMA*-3 catalyst. FIG. 6A shows the relationship between conversion (%), molecular weight (M_(n)), and molecular weight distribution (M_(w)/M_(n)). FIG. 6B shows the relationship between reaction time, conversion (%) and first-order kinetics plot (ln([M]₀/[M]).

FIG. 7. FIG. 7A illustrates a first-order kinetic plot and FIG. 7B shows evolution of molecular weight with monomer conversion for controlled polymerizations conducted with BPMODA and BPMODA* ligands.

FIG. 8. FIG. 8A illustrates a first-order kinetic plot and FIG. 8B shows evolution of molecular weight and M_(w)/M_(n) with conversion for ARGET miniemulsion ATRPs of n-BA with catalysts formed with BPMODA and BPMODA*. ^(a)[n-BA]:[EBiB]=200:1, [Brij98]/[Hexadecane]=2.3/3.6 wt % vs n-BA, T=80° C.

FIG. 9. FIGS. 9A and 9B show CVs conducted vs Fc^(|)/Fc after conversion vs SCE for [FeL1Cl] (FIG. 9A) and [FeL2Cl] (FIG. 9B); conditions: T=25° C., MeCN, [FeL2Cl]=[1 mM]; Electrolyte: [TBAPF6]=0.1M, RE: Ag/AgI, WE: Pt 1, CE: Pt mesh.

FIG. 10. Illustrates the effect of addition of TBACl on CV.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure provides new ligands for transition metal mediated redox-based atom transfer radical addition reactions (ATRA), atom transfer radical coupling reactions (ATRC), and controlled radical polymerization reactions, such as those based on Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (ATRP) processes. The ligands have a structure comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents. The ligands may form complexes with a transition metal to form a transition metal catalyst complex for catalyzing the reaction process. The catalyst complexes are significantly more reactive that conventional transition metal catalyst complexes utilized in these reaction processes, allowing for the use of lower catalyst concentrations while maintaining or improving reaction product characteristics, such as polydispersity.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) has been used for over a decade as an analytical tool to study the redox behavior of numerous transition metal complexes used in an ATRP. One of the earliest studies [Macromol. Chem. Phys. 2000, 201, 1625-1631] determined that the half-sum of the oxidation and reduction peak, the E_(1/2) value, of the formed transition metal complex strongly depends on the nature of the ligand and the halogen and the measured value provided an estimate for the activity of the catalyst complex (as described herein, the Cu^(I)L/Cu^(II)L redox couple) in an ATRP, and that this value strongly depends on the nature of the ligand (L) and the halogen. The general trend agreed with the kinetic features of ATRP catalyzed by the corresponding transition metal complex, and a correlation between the measured redox potential and the apparent equilibrium constant of ATRP was observed. The more negative the redox potential of the complex, as measured by CV, the faster the polymerization indicating that, in most cases, the catalytic activity of the transition metal complexes in an ATRP can be predicted from the redox potential of the transition metal complex. Two more recent studies by the primary author, K. Matyjaszewski, on a broader spectrum of transition metal/ligand complexes in a number of different solvents confirmed the conclusion that excellent correlation existed between the equilibrium constants with the Cu^(II)/Cu^(I) redox potential and the carbon-halogen bond dissociation energies. [Matyjaszewski; et al. Macromolecules 2007, 40, 8576-8585 and J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713].

As used herein, the word “control” and/or “controlled” means that in the polymerization process conditions are defined whereby the contributions of the chain breaking processes are insignificant compared to chain propagation, so that polymers with predeterminable molecular weights, low polydispersity and levels of high site specific functionalities are achievable.

As used herein, “polymer” refers to a macromolecule formed by the chemical union of monomers, typically five or more monomers units. The term polymer includes homopolymers and copolymers; including random copolymers, statistical copolymers, alternating copolymers, gradient copolymers, periodic copolymers, telechelic polymers and polymers of any topology including linear polymers, block copolymers, graft polymers, star polymers, bottle-brush copolymers, comb polymers, branched or hyperbranched polymers, and such polymers tethered to particle surfaces or flat surfaces as well as other natural or synthetic polymer structures.

It must be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a polymer” includes more than one polymer.

When a word comprises parentheses, such as substituent(s) or (co)polymer, the word can mean either the singular or plural or describe a polymer or copolymer.

When a compound is encapsulated in a square bracket, e.g. [Cu^(II)] this signified the concentration of the encapsulated compound; in the case of [Cu^(II)] it means the concentration of the higher oxidation state cupric complex.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, time, temperatures, and so forth used in the present specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, may inherently contain certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to specific compositions, components or process steps disclosed herein, as such may vary, as exemplified n incorporated references. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.

According to various embodiments, the present disclosure provides for a catalyst complex for a redox-based atom transfer radical addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the catalyst comprising: a transition metal; and a ligand comprising from 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, wherein the ligand forms a ligand/metal catalyst complex with the transition metal.

In certain embodiments, the one or more electron donating substituents may be located on a ring atom in the ligand where the ring atom is meta- or para- to the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or the nitrogen of the heteroaromatic ring. For example, in those embodiments comprising a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, such as a pyridine ring, the one or more electron donating substituents may be located on a ring atom on the pyridine that is meta- or para- to the nitrogen of the pyridine ring. Alternatively, in those embodiments comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent, the one or more electron donating substituents may be located on a ring atom on the pyridine that is meta- or para- to the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent attached to the ring.

In specific embodiments, the heteroatom containing groups may comprise an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent, where the anionic the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent is selected from —O⁻, —S⁻, —CO₂ ⁻, —WO₃ ⁻, —NR″⁻, where R″ is —H or (C₁-C₆)alkyl. In specific embodiments, the anionic the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent is selected from —O⁻. It will be understood by one of skill in the art that the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent may be in the anionic form or in the protonated nonionic form, on the conditions, such as the pH of the solution or whether the ligand is complexed to a transition metal.

According to various embodiments, the one or more electron donating substituents may be independently selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R, where R is selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl. In specific embodiments, the one or more electron donating substituents may be independently selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, and —OR. According to various embodiments, the one or more electron donating substituents may exhibit a negative Hammett substitution constant for the ligand, as described herein.

The ligand of the various embodiments of the catalyst complex where the ligand comprises at least one nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, the ligand may comprise a base structure selected from N-(alkyl)pyridylmethanimine, 2,2′-bipyridine, N′,N″-dimethyl-N′,N″-bis(pyridine-2-yl)methyl)ethane-1,2-diamine, 2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine, N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(2-pyridyl)methyl]ethylenediamine, tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine, bis[2-(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)pyridylmethyl]octadecylamine, N,N′-bis(pyridine-2-yl-methyl-3-hexoxo-3-oxopropyl)ethane-1,2-diamine, or bis(2-quinolylmethyl)pyridyl-2-methylamine, wherein at least one pyridine ring comprises one or more electron donating substituents in a position meta- or para- to the pyridine nitrogen atom. According to other embodiments of the catalyst complex where the ligand comprises at least one anionic heteroatomic donor substituent, the ligand may comprise a base structure comprising a phenol, a thiophenol, a benzene carboxylic acid, a benzene sulfonic acid, and an aniline, where the ring may further comprise one or more electron donating substituents in a position meta- or para- to the donor substituent group.

The ligands described according to the various embodiments of the present disclosure may have a structure:

wherein each R′ may be independently an electron donating substituent selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R; where each R may independently be selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; each R¹ may independently be selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; and k, m, n and p are each independently an integer from 0 to 3 provided that at least one of k, m, n, and p is not zero.

In specific embodiments, the catalyst complex described herein may comprise one or more ligand having a structure selected from (4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA*-1), bis(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA*-2), tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl]amine (TPMA*-3), (4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-OMe), bis(4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-OMe-2), tris((4-methoxy)-pyridin-2-yl)methy)l-amine (TPMA-OMe-3), (4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂), bis(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-2), tris(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-yl)methyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-3), bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-octadecylamine (BPMODA*), N,N′-bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl-octadecyl)ethylenediamine (BPED*-OD), N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPEN*), N-methyl-N,N′,N′-tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPMEN*), N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-bis(2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylbenzyl)ethylenediamine, 2,4-dimethyl-6-bis(2-(diethylamino)-ethyl)aminomethylphenol, and tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine (TQMA).

According to other embodiments, the catalyst complex described herein may comprise a bipyridine (bpy) ligand comprising a straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, a branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, an alkoxy group, or an N,N-dialkylamino group at a position para- to or meta- to one or both of the bipyridine nitrogen atoms. For example, one or both of the pyridine rings in the bipyridine ligand may comprise one or more alkyl groups, alkoxy groups or amino group in the positions meta- and para- to the pyridine nitrogen atoms. In one specific embodiment, the catalyst may comprise a ligand having a bipyridine group having N,N-dimethylamino groups in the positions para to each pyridine nitrogen atom.

According to other embodiments of the catalyst complexes, the ligand may further comprise one or more electron withdrawing groups on one or more of the aromatic ring or the heteroaromatic ring of the ligand. Non-limiting examples of electron withdrawing groups include, for example, halogens, such as —F, —Cl, —Br, nitro (—NO₂), carboxylic ester (—C(═O)OR¹), or amide (—C(═O)NR¹ ₂). In certain embodiments, electron withdrawing groups positioned on the ligand may help to tune the reactivity of the catalyst complex. For example, in embodiments where the ligand described herein may be too reactive for the reaction or polymerization system, the inventors have discovered that the catalytic activity may be tuned by modifying the ligand with one or more electron withdrawing groups.

According to various embodiments of the catalyst complexes described herein, the catalyst complex may comprise a transition metal selected from any of the transition metals in the columns 3-12 of the periodic table. In specific embodiments, the transition metal may be Cu, Fe, Mo, Mn, Cr, Co, and Ru. In specific embodiments, the transition metal may be Cu or Fe. The transition metal may be in various oxidation states and may be added to the reaction medium as a salt and oxidized or reduced as necessary to form the active metal complex. For example, in one embodiment the transition metal may be Cu and may be added to the reaction in one of the Cu(0), Cu(I) or Cu(II) oxidation state. In another embodiment, the transition metal may be Fe and may be added to the reaction in one of the Fe(0), Fe(I), Fe(II), Fe(III) or Fe(IV) oxidation state. According to various embodiments, the transition metal may be able to form a catalyst complex with one or more of the ligand molecules. For example, depending on the number of complexing atoms on the ligand, the catalyst complex may comprise one, two, three or more ligand molecules complexed to the transition metal. In specific embodiments, the catalyst complex may comprise a transition metal complexed to one or two ligands.

In specific embodiments, the catalyst complex may catalyze a controlled radical polymerization reaction process. Examples of controlled radical polymerization processes that may be catalyzed by the catalyst complexes described herein include, conventional Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (ATRP) processes, reverse ATRP processes, simultaneous reverse and normal initiation (SR&NI) ATRP, initiators for continuous activator regeneration (ICAR) ATRP, reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization, supplemental activator and reducing agent (SARA) ATRP, electrochemical ATRP (e-ATRP), activator generation by electron transfer (AGET) ATRP, or activator regenerated by electron transfer (ARGET) ATRP.

According to various embodiments, the catalyst complexes described herein may have a high catalytic activity, due to the presence of the one or more electron donating substituent on the ligand of the catalyst complex. For example, in certain embodiments, the catalyst activity of the complexes described herein may be greater than or equal to 100 times the activity of a catalyst complex comprising a transition metal and a ligand where the ligand comprises an aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring that does not comprise an electron donating substituent. Because the catalyst complex is more reactive that conventional catalyst complexes, significantly reduced catalyst amounts are necessary for effective catalysis of reaction processes described herein. For example, for ATRP polymerization processes, the catalyst complex concentrations may be reduced to less than 500 ppm, in certain embodiments less than or equal to 250 ppm, less than or equal to 100 ppm, less than or equal to 50 ppm or even less than or equal to 10 ppm, relative to other reaction components. Reduced catalyst complex may result in easier and more economic purification protocols and less expensive reaction processes, compared to reaction processes with less reactive conventional catalyst complexes.

According to various embodiments, the catalyst complex may comprise a ligand that is compatible with various reaction environments. For example, in certain embodiments, the ligand may be designed or selected so that the catalyst complex is at least partially soluble in a liquid reaction medium. For example, the liquid reaction medium may be a bulk medium (i.e., where the monomer/reactants comprise the solvent), a hydrophilic liquid reaction medium, or a hydrophobic liquid reaction medium. In specific embodiments, the liquid reaction medium may be a hydrophilic reaction medium, such as an aqueous reaction medium. In other embodiments, the liquid reaction medium may be a hydrophobic reaction medium, such as an organic solvent medium. In specific embodiments, the liquid reaction medium may be a biphasic liquid reaction medium, for example an emulsion, a miniemulsion, a nanoemulsion or a microemulsion, where the medium comprises a hydrophobic liquid phase and a hydrophilic liquid phase. According to these embodiments, the ligand may be designed or selected so that the catalyst complex may be at least partially soluble in a dispersed hydrophilic phase or in the dispersed hydrophobic phase of the biphasic reaction. According to various embodiments, the catalyst may selectively partition into one of the hydrophobic phase and hydrophilic phase according to, for example, the ligand structure, the transition metal oxidation state, etc.

According to other embodiments, the present disclosure provides a ligand for forming a transition metal catalyst capable of catalyzing a redox-based atom transfer radial addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction, or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, wherein the ligand has a structure selected from

wherein each R′ may be independently an electron donating substituent selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R; where each R may be independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; each R¹ is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; and k, m, n and p are each independently an integer from 0 to 3 provided that at least one of k, m, n, and p is not zero.

According to specific embodiments, the ligand may have a structure selected from the group consisting of (4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA*-1), bis(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA*-2), tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl]amine (TPMA*-3), (4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-OMe), bis(4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-OMe-2), tris((4-methoxy)-pyridin-2-yl)methy)l-amine (TPMA-OMe-3), (4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂), bis(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-2), tris(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-yl)methyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-3), bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-octadecylamine (BPMODA*), N,N′-bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl-octadecyl)ethylene diamine (BPED*-OD), N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPEN*), N-methyl-N,N′,N′-tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPMEN*), N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-bis(2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylbenzyl)ethylenediamine, 2,4-dimethyl-6-bis(2-(diethylamino)-ethyl)amino methylphenol, and tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine (TQMA). In various embodiments of the ligands described herein, the ligand may further comprise one or more electron withdrawing groups on one or more of the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring, such as an electron withdrawing group selected from —F, —Cl, —Br, —NO₂, —C(═O)OR¹, or —C(═O)NR¹ ₂, where R¹ is as defined herein.

Still further embodiments of the present disclosure provide for a system for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction. According to certain embodiments, the system may comprise a) radically (co)polymerizable monomer(s); b) an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups; c) less than or equal to 500 ppm of a catalyst complex; and d) optionally, a solvent. According to certain these embodiments, the catalyst complex may have a structure according to any of the various catalyst complexes described herein. For example, the catalyst complex may comprise a transition metal; and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, such as described herein. In certain embodiments, the system may comprise reduced amounts of the catalyst complex, such as less than or equal to 500 ppm, compared to conventional systems for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction. In specific embodiments, the system may comprise less than or equal to 100 ppm of the catalyst complex, or in certain embodiments, less than or equal to 50 ppm, or even less than or equal to 10 ppm of the catalyst complex.

The transition metal utilized in the catalyst complex in the system may be any of the transition metals described herein as useful in catalyst complexes and, in certain embodiments, may be Cu or Fe. The ligand utilized in the catalyst complex in the system may be any of the ligands having one or more electron donating substituents according to the various embodiments described in detail herein.

According to the various embodiments of the system, the radically (co)polymerizable monomers may be any monomer suitable for or reactive in a controlled radical polymerization as are known in the art. In specific embodiments, the monomers may comprise vinyl monomers, (meth)acrylate based monomers, and/or styrenyl monomers, such as but not limited to styrene, methyl acrylate (MA), methyl methacrylate (MMA), ethyl acrylate, ethyl methacrylate, n-butyl acrylate (nBA), butyl methacrylate (BMA), N-vinylpyrrolidone, etc. According to the various embodiments of the system, the initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups may comprise ATRP initiators and macroinitiators known in the art, including but not limited to initiators and macroinitiators having one or more halogen atoms, such as one or more Cl or Br. One of skill in the art would recognize that a variety of (co)monomers and ATRP-type initiators may be suited and are incorporated herein.

According to various embodiments, the system for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction may be a system for conducting an atom transfer radical polymerization, such as a conventional ATRP, a reverse ATRP, an SR&NI ATRP, an ICAR ATRP, a RAFT polymerization, a SARA ATRP, an e-ATRP, an AGET ATRP or an ARGET ATRP.

Still other embodiments of the present disclosure provide for a process for conducting a transition metal mediated controlled radical polymerization process. According to these embodiments, the process may comprise polymerizing radically (co)polymerizable monomer(s) in the presence of an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups, less than 500 ppm of a catalyst complex, and optionally, a solvent. According to certain these embodiments, the catalyst complex may have a structure according to any of the various catalyst complexes described herein. For example, the catalyst complex may comprise a transition metal; and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, such as described herein. In certain embodiments, the system may comprise reduced amounts of the catalyst complex, such as less than or equal to 500 ppm, compared to conventional systems for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction. In specific embodiments, the system may comprise less than or equal to 100 ppm of the catalyst complex, or in certain embodiments, less than or equal to 50 ppm, or even less than or equal to 10 ppm of the catalyst complex.

The transition metal utilized in the catalyst complex in the system may be any of the transition metals described herein as useful in catalyst complexes and, in certain embodiments, may be Cu or Fe. The ligand utilized in the catalyst complex in the system may be any of the ligands having one or more electron donating substituents according to the various embodiments described in detail herein.

According to various embodiments, the system for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction may be a system for conducting an atom transfer radical polymerization, such as a conventional ATRP, a reverse ATRP, an SR&NI ATRP, an ICAR ATRP, a RAFT polymerization, a SARA ATRP, an e-ATRP, an AGET ATRP or an ARGET ATRP.

Studies on the reactivity of Cu-catalysts with N-based ligands have shown that activity of the formed catalyst complex can be correlated with the number of coordinating N-atoms (4>3>2), the nature of N-atoms (alkyl amine≈pyridine>imine>aromatic amine), the distance between N-atoms (C₂>C₃>C₄), and ligand topology (branched>cyclic>linear) [Coord. Chem. Rev. 2005, 249, 1155-1184].

Disclosed herein, in one embodiment of the invention, are the surprising results obtained when ligand design focused on the importance of electronic effects when employing various para substituents (R—) in relatively less active bpy ligands, as shown in Scheme 2 and whose CV's are reported in Table 1. These compounds were known but they had never been considered as ligands for transition metal complexes for controlled polymerizations.

A series of bipyridine derivatives with substituents ranging from electron withdrawing groups (EWGs) exemplified by chlorine (Cl—) to electron donating groups (EDGs) exemplified by methyl (Me-), methoxy (MeO—), and dimethylamine (Me)₂N—) were evaluated as ligands for transition metals targeting ATRP. The values for the electronic effects are taken from a paper describing Hammett substituent constants and field parameters by Taft et al. [Chem. Rev. 1991, 91, 165-95, (particularly the contents of Table 1 of the cited reference)] which is herein incorporated by reference to provide a list of values for a range of sigma constants (σ) for suitable substituents; e.g. σ_(m)(Me-)=−0.07 (line 133 Table 1 in the reference) and σ_(p)(MeO—)=−0.27 (line 142 Table 1 in the review) implying higher electron releasing power relative to the unsubstituted bpy ligand. There are over 30 electron donating substituents listed in the review article including straight and branched alkyl groups (R=alkyl) including -Me, -Et, cyclopropyl, iPr, tBu, -adamantyl and —CHR₂, —C(R)₃; amines including —NH₂, —NHR, —NR₂; hydroxylamines such as —NHOH; hydrazines such as —NHNH₂; amides including —N(R)COR; ureas including —NHCONH₂, —NHCONHR, —NHCONR₂; alkoxy groups such as O—R; carbonates —CO₂ ⁻; boronic acid groups including —B(OH)₃ and others including —CH₂CH(OH)Me, —CH₂NH₂, NHCOOR, —CH₃Si(Me)₃ —OCH₂CH₂O⁻or —NHCH₂SO₃, all of which are suitable donor groups.

Cyclic voltammetry experiments confirmed that increased electron donating ability in the conjugated electron donating substituents resulted in increased stability of the Cu^(II)/L complexes and increased polymerizations rates while still producing polymers with narrow M_(w)/M_(n) values and pre-determined molecular weights allowing use of parts-per-million catalyst loadings; typically inaccessible to prior art H-bpy and 4,4′-dN-bpy ligands.

TABLE 1 CV of copper based complexes formed with 4,4′-substituted bipyridine ligands. Entry R E_(1/2) (V)^(a) Δ E_(p) (mV) Relative K_(ATRP) 1 —Cl 0.270 130  10^(−3.6) 2 —H 0.055 110 1 3 —Me −0.048 125 10^(1.8) 4 —dN −0.055 120 10^(1.9) 5 —OMe −0.088 105 10^(2.4) 6 —N(Me)₂ −0.313 145 10^(6.2) ^(a)V vs. Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) using previously reported conditions. [J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713.]

Other exemplary ATRP catalyst ligands that include a pyridine moiety that could incorporate additional electron donor substituents include (tris[(2-pyridyl)methyl]amine), N-(alkyl)pyridylmethanimine, 2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine, N′,N″-dimethyl-N′,N″-bis((pyridin-2-yl)methyl)ethane-1,2-diamine, N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN), and N,N,N′-tris(2-pyridylmethyl)-N′-methylethylenediamine (TPMEN) whose structures are shown in Scheme 3.

A further embodiment of the invention is provided when this concept was then applied to a set of ligands that inherently provide higher activity catalyst complexes, exemplified herein by site selected functionalization of the tetradentate tripodal (tris[(2-pyridyl)methyl]amine) (TPMA) ligand. TPMA provides a versatile scaffold for controlled site specific incorporation of units contributing additional electron donating capacity to the ligand as illustrated in Scheme 4A.

As detailed below, it was discovered that when one or more of the R-substituents on the pyridine ring (R₁, R_(α) or R_(β)) comprise electron donor substituents, the incorporated substituents on one or more of the pyridyl rings, can strongly influence the steric and electronic properties of the resulting transition metal complex. We observed considerable enhancement in the rate of polymerization when employing ligands comprising aromatic groups further comprising EDGs for the ATRP of styrenes, (meth)acrylates and other radically copolymerizable monomers. If the substituents were appropriately selected the ligands were soluble and stable in the presence of a range of solvents and an exemplary range of monomers employed for ATRP and the activity of the catalyst complex increased the value for K_(ATRP) determined for the polymerization.

In most of the following examples R_(α)— and R_(β)— are the same EDG but they could be different if desired.

Throughout this disclosure we will identify the active ligands comprising EDGs by employing the accepted abbreviation for the ligand by adding a star, such as TPMA* and noting by addition of a -number, when one or more of the pyridyl-groups comprise one or more substituents, such as TPMA*-2 for the second ligand shown in Scheme 4 B.

As noted above in Scheme 4B each aromatic ring can contain between zero, only —H atoms in the ring, to three different site selected electron donating functional groups.

One embodiment of the invention provides transition metal catalysts comprising ligands with conjugated functionality, primarily electron donating substituents, that increase the activity of the catalyst complex compared to unsubstituted ligands, i.e. ligands only with —H atoms in the ligands. The substituents are preferably in the meta- or para-positions in the pyridine unit(s) in order to reduce steric effects in the formed complex. As disclosed below copper complexes formed with ligands additionally comprising coordinated EDGs display activity in an ATRP greater than the activity of catalyst complexes without such EDGs.

In order to obtain more stable complexes, especially for Cu(I), pentadentate/hexadentate TPMEN/TPEN ligands were also examined. TPEN is supposed to provide better stability (Helvetica Chimica Acta 60(1): 123-140) and it was decided to combined these more complex ligands with site specific ED groups determine if it would be possible to have increased stability and sufficient high activity. The novel ligand (TPEN*, Scheme 5) was synthesized following a protocol in Scheme 5.

CV investigations for CuOTf₂/TPEN* and CuBr₂/TPEN* were obtained and the results are compared to literature data for TPEN and TPMEN in Table 2. The data shows the ligands with EDGs are more reducing and therefore would be expected to be more active.

TABLE 2 (A) Results of CV investigations and comparison; (B) with literature values under the same conditions. Ep, c vs Ep, a vs ΔEp vs E½ vs Complex SCE (V) SCE (V) SCE (V) SCE (V) CuOTf₂/TPEN* −0.405 −0.303 0.103 −0.354 CuBr₂/TPEN* −0.407 −0.305 0.102 −0.356 #CuBr₂/TPEN −0.205 −0.126 0.070 −0.166 #CuBr₂/TPMEN −0.261 −0.171 0.090 −0.216 #Data from Macromolecules (2009). 42(13): 4531-4538

In addition to forming ligands for bulk or solution based ATRP site specific functionalization of a ligand can be employed to generate a ligand which is hydrophobic enough to be useful for oil in water miniemulsion polymerizations yet provides sufficiently high activity to allow the concentration of the catalyst to be reduced to the level utilized in an ARGET-ATRP, i.e. low ppm levels [Macromolecules 2006, 39, 39-45.] thereby providing a more environmentally lower cost procedure than the current AGET procedure. The substituents should be selected to retain/form the high level of hydrophobicity required to ensure high solubility of the catalytic species in the organic phase. In one embodiment of the invention the procedure shown in Scheme 6 was employed to synthesize a novel hydrophobic ligand, bis[2-(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)pyridylmethyl]octadecylamine, identified herein as BPMODA* which is suitable for aqueous dispersed media polymerizations.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was used to determine the E_(1/2) value of BPMODA and BPMODA*, providing values of −0.098 and −0.204 V (vs. SCE), respectively. From this correlation, it can be concluded that the supplemental electron donating substituents present on BPMODA* should increase the K_(ATRP) value of 10⁻⁷ for BPMODA, to ca. 10⁻⁵ for the new ligand. The two orders of magnitude increase in K_(ATRP) value causes BPMODA* to have a similar activity to TPMA. It is not obvious if CV must correlate with K_(ATRP), because halidophilicity may be different but it turned out this was not the situation. Kinetic studies on the use of BPMODA*, both under traditional bulk/solution ARGET-ATRP conditions as well as ARGET-ATRP in miniemulsion will be discussed herein.

Another example of designing a ligand for a specific purpose, targeting a low catalyst concentration miniemulsion ATRP, is shown in Scheme 7. In this case the ligand is N,N′-bis(pyridin-2-yl-methyl-3-hexoxo-3-oxopropyl)ethane-1,2-diamine (BPED). BPED provides an active copper based catalyst complex that displays a K_(ATRP) in the range of TPMA, for a bulk/solution ATRP [Macromolecular Rapid Communications 2004, 25, 632-636.] was made more hydrophobic by changing the methyl groups on the nitrogen atoms to octadecyl groups (BPED-OD), indeed other linear or branched alkyl substituents can be employed to modify the phobicity of the BPED based ligand, as with any other molecule illustrated herein. Then the activity of the hydrophobic catalyst was increased by incorporation of EDGs forming BPED-OD*.

In order to determine the effect of “anionic” donor atoms on copper and iron complexes a series of phenolate ligands were prepared. Some exemplary structures for such ligands are provided in Scheme 8. The ligands comprised phenolate moieties and aliphatic amine or pyridine donors. The pyridine based fragments of the ligands can optionally comprise electron withdrawing or electron donating ligands to adjust the activity of the formed transition metal complex in the targeted reaction. In contrast to prior work by Gibson [US 20060258867] the preferred ligands are tetradentate and do not comprise an imine moiety. The incorporation of an “anionic donor allows formation of stable transition metal by formation of a direct bond between the ligand and the selected transition metal.

A series of bpy ligands with 4,4′-substituents ranging from electron withdrawing groups (EWGs) such as chlorine (Cl—) to electron donating groups (EDGs) including methyl, methoxy and dimethylamine (Me-, MeO—, (Me)₂N—) were examined as ligands for transition metals to determine if they formed catalyst complexes suitable for use in an ATRP. The X—Cu^(II)/R-bpy complexes should maintain a trigonal bipyramidal geometry, commonly observed for copper(II) bpy systems [New Journal of Chemistry 2002, 26, 462-468.] independent of the 4,4′-bpy substituent. Prior to conducting an ATRP, each transition metal complex was characterized using CV and the results are summarized in Table 1.

As noted above, conducting a CV on transition metal complexes formed with the custom designed ligands provides a convenient tool to gain insight into the relative activities of metal complexes in ATRP through the correlation which exists between half-wave potentials (E_(1/2)) and ATRP equilibrium constants (K_(ATRP)). [Macromolecules 2009, 42, 6348-6360 and J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702-10713]. Table 1 provides evidence that moving to increasingly more electron donating substituents, i.e. R-(EDG)=Cl—<H—<CH₃-<MeO-<(Me)₂N—, in the 4,4′-positions of the bipyridyl ligands leads to formation of copper catalyst complexes with progressively more negative E_(1/2) values. More negative E_(1/2) values correspond to more stable Cu^(II)/L complexes, and therefore result in larger K_(ATRP) values. Surprisingly, simply changing the 4,4′-substituents on the pyridine moiety from a hydrogen atom to a donating (Me)₂N— functional group produced a 370 mV shift in the E_(1/2) value, FIG. 1A, which is equivalent to a 10⁶ fold increase in K_(ATRP), FIG. 1B. This E_(1/2) value for 4.4′-(Me)₂N-bpy is similar to the value obtained with one of most currently active copper based ATRP complexes, a complex formed with Me₆TREN as the ligand.

To test this hypothesis a series of polymerizations were conducted under traditional ATRP conditions, as summarized in the caption of FIG. 2, varying only the R-functionality in the R-bpy ligand. When these differently substituted R-bpy ligands were employed for an ATRP we observed considerable enhancement of the rate of an ATRP when employing ligands with EDGs for the polymerizations of acrylates. The strongly donating R-bpy ligands resulted in the formation of catalyst complexes that provided a significant rate enhancement and controlled polymerizations utilizing ppm catalyst loadings; typically inaccessible to H-bpy and dN-bpy ligands

During each polymerization monomer conversion, number average molecular weight (M_(n)), and the molecular weight distribution (M_(w)/M_(n)) were monitored as the polymerization progressed, FIGS. 2A and B, to confirm that “controlled” reactions were being conducted.

The fastest polymerization was observed with the ligand comprising the most strongly electron donating substituent, i.e. (Me)₂N—, followed by MeO— and dN—, and the slowest rates of polymerization were observed with H— and the electron withdrawing Cl— substituents, FIG. 2A. As one transitioned from H-bpy to 4,4′-MeO-bpy and 4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy ligands, respectively, a rate enhancement of 100× and 400× was observed. Monomer conversions >80% were accomplished in ca. 17 h and 0.5 h with 4,4′-MeO-bpy and 4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy, respectively, whereas the prior art H-bpy and dNbpy ligands required nearly a day to reach only ca. 40% conversion. Furthermore, the 4,4′-R-bpy ligands comprising EDGs provided polymers that exhibited all the characteristics of polymers prepared in a well-controlled polymerization: a linear increase in M_(n) with conversion, and M_(w)/M_(n) values ≧1.15, FIG. 2B.

However, the most active 4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy ligand resulted in production of polymer samples with higher molecular weight, N_(n,gpc)>>M_(n,theo), presumably from the very high reactivity expected for a catalyst complex generating high initial radical concentrations and hence increasing the number of early termination events thereby reducing the concentration of functional initiators while increasing the concentration of the deactivator complex to a sufficient degree to control the reaction.

CV and normal ATRP experiments revealed that selective incorporation of EDGs on bpy dramatically influenced the polymerization behavior and confirmed an increase in the K_(ATRP). Ligands with larger K_(ATRP) values should provide higher absolute concentrations of the deactivator, [Cu^(II)/L], in dilute conditions, permitting a CLRP even in the presence of ppm catalyst concentrations. Currently, highly active Me₆TREN and TPMA ligands must be employed when ppm catalyst concentrations are desired, because complexes with low activity ligands, e.g. bpy, have been shown to be ineffective when present at low concentrations due to generation of an insufficient concentration of the deactivator complex [Cu^(II)/L]. Previous literature accounts have shown polymerizations conducted with low concentrations of bpy, or other low activity ligands, result in the preparation of polymers with broad M_(w)/M_(n) when polymerizing styrenes, methacrylates, and acrylates. Therefore, these newly identified and highly active 4,4′-R-bpy ligands were investigated for their ability to form copper based catalyst complexes that could maintain CLRP behavior with ppm concentrations of catalyst.

Table 3 summarizes a variety of polymerizations using copper wire as a supplementary activator and reducing agent (SARA) ATRP [Macromolecules 2010, 43, 9682-9689; ACS Macro Lett. 2012,1, 1308-1311.] with R-bpy ligands in a series of experiments designed to study the influence of the R-group on the [Cu^(II)], the [Cu^(II)/L₂], and monomer; i.e. MA and MMA. The first investigation compared the level of control attained with bpy based ligands containing dN—, MeO—, and (Me₂)N-4,4′-substituents at 500 ppm of [Cu^(II)].

TABLE 3 ATRP of MA and MMA with ppm levels of Cu/R-bpy ligands. [Cu^(II)Br₂] [R-bpy] Time Conv. Entry Monomer ppm/equiv. (X)) (R/equiv. (Y)) (h) (%) M_(n,theo) M_(n,GPC) M_(w)/M_(n) 1^(a) MA 500/0.1 dN/0.20 2.0 24  4 115 11 200 1.98 7.0 62 10 692 16 500 1.76 2^(a) MA 500/0.1 MeO/0.20 2.0 35  6 026  8 930 2.39 5.0 74 12 706 16 800 1.64 3^(a) MA 500/0.1 (Me)₂N/0.20 1.0 54  9 332 11 300 1.17 2.0 78 13 464 16 530 1.12 4^(a) MA 50/0.01 (Me)₂N/0.20 0.5 58 10 004 13 800 1.44 1.5 83 14 360 20 000 1.25 5^(a) MA 200/0.04 (Me)₂N/0.08 2.0 55  9 470 13 000 1.35 5.0 78 13 396 16 950 1.28 6^(a) MA 100/0.02 (Me)₂N/0.04 2.0 49  8 402 12 050 1.71 6.0 77 13 258 17 750 1.46 7^(b) MMA 100/0.02 dN/0.04 6.0 52 10 676 12 050 1.20 8^(b) MMA 100/0.02 MeO/0.04 6.0 59 12 097 13 570 1.25 9^(b) MMA 100/0.02 (Me)₂N/0.04 6.0 54 10 976 13 670 1.28 10   MMA  20/0.004 (Me)₂N/0.08 52 32  6 522  8 500 1.41 ^(a)[MA]:[EBiB]:[R-bpy]:[CuBr2] = 200:1:X:Y with 5 cm copper wire in 50 (v/v) % DMSO at 25° C. ^(b)[MMA]:[EBPA]:[R-bpy]:[CuBr2] = 200:1:X:Y with 1 cm copper wire in 50 (v/v) % 3:1 anisole:DMSO mixture at 60° C.

Similar to the observation with normal ATRP, SARA ATRP conducted with 500 ppm of Cu^(II) showed that increasing the electron donating contribution from the EDG in the 4,4′-substituents resulted in higher rates of polymerizations; entries 1, 2, and 3 at 2 hours. Furthermore, polymers of similar M_(n) had lower M_(w)/M_(n) values were obtained when more active catalysts were used for the polymerizations; entries 1 (7 h), 2 (5 h), and 3 (2 h). In particular, the medium activity exhibited by the prior art 4,4′-dN-bpy ligand provided a M_(w)/M_(n) value >1.7, (entry 1 (7 h)) whereas the newly employed 4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy provided a polymer displaying a M_(w)/M_(n) value of 1.12. Lower M_(w)/M_(n) values are generally obtained with ligands that provide catalyst complexes generating larger values for K_(ATRP) because they provide higher [Cu^(II)/L], which increases the rate of deactivation resulting in fewer monomer additions during each activation-deactivation cycle.

After establishing that the 4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy was the most effective bpy based ATRP ligand under highly dilute conditions, the lower concentration limit was probed by varying the initial [Cu^(II)] and [Cu^(II)/L]. Entries 3-4 in Table 3 present results from reactions conducted under identical polymerization conditions except with a 10 fold difference in the initial [Cu^(II)]. A rapid polymerization occurred with only 50 ppm [Cu^(II)], reaching >80% conversion in 1.5 h, while maintaining M_(w)/M_(n) values <1.3. It should be noted that between these two experiments the concentration of ligand remained constant and only the concentration of Cu^(II) was decreased.

In a separate series of polymerizations, the concentration of Cu^(II) and ligand were systematically decreased, from 500 to 100 ppm of Cu^(II), entries 3, 5, and 6 in Table 3. In this series, the concentration of ligand was always twice that of the copper (Cu/L is used rather than Cu/L₂ for nomenclature consistency). As [Cu/L] was decreased, the polymerization rate also decreased, as evidenced in Table 3, entries 3, 5, and 6 at 2 hours, the conversion of monomer was 78, 55, and 48% for 500, 200, and 100 ppm of [Cu^(II)/L], respectively. Similar behavior was previously observed in literature when using SARA ATRP of MMA and MA. [Macromol. 2010, 43, 9682-9689 and Macromol. 2011, 44, 811-819.] In addition, higher [Cu^(II)/L] yielded polymers with lower M_(w)/M_(n) values. When the copper concentrations are reduced from 500 to 100 ppm, compare entry 3 (2 h) and 6 (6 h), the M_(w)/M_(n) values changed from 1.12 to 1.46 at similar conversion values of 80%.

The later series of experiments, Table 3 entries 7-10, were intended to probe the ability of R-bpy ligands to catalyze the polymerization of MMA utilizing ppm concentrations of catalyst. Different polymerization conditions were used for MMA, including use of a mixed solvent system, higher reaction temperatures, and a more active initiator, i.e. ethyl-α-bromophenylacetate (EBPA). The higher reaction temperature was used to increase the rate of polymerization. As shown in entries 7, 8, and 9, three different ligands were employed using 100 ppm of copper catalyst. In each case similar conversion values, molecular weights, and M_(w)/M_(n) values were obtained and each of the R-bpy ligands proved to be capable of catalyzing the ATRP process and provided polymers with low M_(w)/M_(n) values with only 100 ppm of Cu^(II)/L. The studies were then extended to a 20 ppm ATRP system employing most active (Me)₂N-bpy ligand, Table 3, entry 10. The resulting polymerization was slow, reaching only 32% conversion in 52 h, and had a slightly higher M_(w)/M_(n) value of 1.41 compared to the more successful 100 ppm system.

Another ligand comprising a pyridyl based unit is TPMA and several derivatives of TPMA were synthesized based on the TPMA scaffold shown in Scheme 4A by varying substituents, R₁—, R_(α)— and R_(β)—. A novel procedure for the synthesis of tris[{4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl})-2-pyridyl}methyl]amine, shown in Scheme 9, which will be identified as TPMA*-3, see Scheme 4 B, in the following exemplification of the effect of designing highly active catalysts specifically for an ATRP. Each pyridine moiety in TPMA*-3 contains three EDG's, two Me- in the meta-positions and one MeO— substituent in the para-position was developed. The negative Hammett sigma constants (σ) of the selected EDGs; σ_(m)(Me-)=−0.07 and σ_(p)(MeO—)=−0.27 imply high electron releasing power relative to unsubstituted TPMA ligand.

Three other novel derivatives of TPMA, see Scheme 4 B, were successfully synthesized for comparison with TPMA*-3 and procedures for their synthesis are presented in Schemes 10 to 12. The procedure for the preparation of the para-dimethylamine-substituted derivative is shown in Scheme 13.

The procedures developed for the synthesis of TPMA*-2 and TPMA*-1 are high yield procedures providing novel ligands that displayed a significant increase in activity compared to TPMA in an ATRP. These synthetic procedures for the synthesis of novel ligands and the enhanced activity of the catalyst complexes formed between such ligands and various transition metals provide industrially viable methods for preparation of catalysts for numerous homo- and heterogeneous catalytic procedures including atom transfer radical addition (ATRA), atom transfer radical cyclization, atom transfer radical coupling, ATRP, and a variety of other redox based catalytic reactions.

As detailed in the experimental section a series of catalyst complexes were prepared based on the ligands shown above and the parameters that provide information on the rate and control of an ATRP were determined. The results are provided in the Table 4.

TABLE 4 Summary of parameters obtained for the TPMA family. TPMA TPMA*-1 TPMA*-2 TPMA*-3 TPMA-OMe-3 E_(1/2) 0.020 −0.057 −0.110 −0.150 −0.082 (CuOTf₂/L) in V^([a]) E_(1/2) −0.240 −0.311 −0.357 −0.420 −0.373 (CuBr₂/L) in V^([a]) β^(II)/β^(I) 2.5 × 10⁴  2.0 × 10⁴  8.3 × 10⁴  3.6 × 10⁴  1.5 × 10⁴  (Bromide)^([b]) β^(II)/β^(I) 3.2 × 10¹⁷ 6.5 × 10¹⁸ 5.1 × 10¹⁹ 2.4 × 10²⁰ 1.7 × 10¹⁹ (Ligand)^([b]) Estimated 1 10^(1.2) 10² 10³ 10^(2.2) increase in K_(ATRP) compared to TPMA (CV) K_(ATRP) ^([c])  3.2 × 10^(−7[d])  5 × 10⁻⁶ 4.7 × 10⁻⁵  5 × 10⁻⁴ 1.7 × 10⁻⁵ k_(a) ^([c]) [M⁻¹ s⁻¹] (3.8)^([d]) 250 900 4100 8400 2500 ^([a])T = 25° C., MeCN, [Cu(OTf)₂] = [TPMA derivative] = [1 mM]; Electrolyte: [TBAPF₆] = 0.1M; ^([b])calculation after ref. Macromolecules 2010, 43, 9257] ^([c])measured by stopped-flow (BJ): [MBP] as initiator, T = 25° C., MeCN; K_(ATRP) = (m/2k_(t))^(1/2) with k_(t) = 2.5 × 10⁹ M⁻¹ s⁻¹(determined theoretically in ref. Macromolecules 2010, 43, 9257); ^([d])literature values from ref. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10702.

In addition to characterizing the structure of the ligands by spectral analysis, electrochemical characterizations of the corresponding Cu-complexes were carried out. Redox potentials of the Cu complexes can be easily assessed by cyclic voltammetry, in addition ESI measurements, which confirmed the coordination complex structure of the catalyst in MeCN solution. The half potential of CuBr/TPMA*-3 is significant more negative (E_(1/2)=−0.420 V vs SCE) than that measured for CuBr/TPMA (E_(1/2)=−0.24 V vs SCE), which was previously considered to provide one of the more active catalyst complexes for an ATRP. Indeed the calculated K_(ATRP, TPMA*-3) in comparison with the normal CuBr/TPMA system K_(ATRP, TPMA*-3)=10×K_(ATRP, TPMA); meaning a copper complex formed with the ligand should be a thousand times more active in an ATRP. Furthermore, the relative stability constant for TPMA*-3 and the bromine derivative are: TPMA*-3−β^(II)/β^(I)=2.4×10²⁰; bromine−β^(II)/β^(I)=3.6×10⁴ respectively.

While the half potential of CuBr/TPMA-OMe-3 is significant more negative (E_(1/2)=−0.373 V vs SCE and E_(1/2)=−0.094 V vs Fc+/Fc), than the CuBr/TPMA system in comparison to CuBr/TPMA*-3 (E_(1/2)=−0.420 V vs SCE) the potential is less negative and therefore the CuBr/TPMA-OMe-3 catalyst is slightly less reducing and expected to provide a lower activity catalyst complex. From this data the calculated K_(ATRP, TPMA-OMe-3) in comparison with the normal CuBr/TPMA system is K_(ATRP, TPMA-OMe-3)=10^(2.2)×K_(ATRP, TPMA) and the relative stability constant for TPMA-OMe-3 and the bromine derivative are: TPMA-OMe-3−β^(II)/β^(I)=1.7×10¹⁹; bromine−β^(II)/β^(I)=8.3×10⁴, indicating that stable active catalyst complexes are formed. Another “unsubstituted” ligand that should provide similar activity to TPMA but with increased steric effects which may be advantageous in terms of lower rearrangement energies when going from Cu^(II) to Cu^(I), which should give better control and faster rate is the quinoline based equivalent of TPMA, tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine, which can be named TQMA. The reducing capacity of a complex comprising this ligand can also be determined from CV as peak-to-peak separations (ΔEp) should be close to Nernstian values. The increased steric interaction should also prevent transition metal induced side reactions, e.g. reaction with other Cu complexes like disproportionation in polar solvents. The quinoline equivalent of TPMA was synthesized using the procedure shown in Scheme 14. The reaction product did require purification.

Intermediate structures such as bis(2-quinolylmethyl)pyridyl-2-methylamine (BQPA), Scheme 15, with two quinoline rings and one pyridyl ring would also provide suitable foundations for EDG substitution.

A series of mixed phenolate/amine ligands were prepared in order to examine the effect the presence of “anionic” donor atoms will have on copper and iron complexes. The ligands were selected to comprise phenoxy moieties and aliphatic amine or pyridine donors. Exemplary non-limiting examples of ligands falling in this class are shown below.

CV's were carried out on the iron complexes formed with ligands 2 and 3 in Scheme 16 vs Fc/Fc⁺ providing E_(1/2) values=−790 mV and −770 mV respectively which indicates that active complexes for redox based reactions were formed. A tBu-Salan complex, Scheme 16, was formed and the CV indicated a more active catalyst complex with an E_(1/2) value=−960 mV which is much more reducing than reported values of (−410-440 mV) for other iron complexes employed by Pintauer for ATRA reactions [Inorg. Chem. Acta 2012, 382, 84].

One embodiment of the invention provided by this initial series of exemplary ligands provides a rational design of ligands that provide a powerful tool to manipulate and improve the activity of catalyst complexes in transition metal catalyzed ATRP. In a series of exemplifying examples discussed below it is clearly shown that the site selective introduction of electron donating substituents into ligands greatly enhance the catalytic activity of the resulting copper based catalyst complexes in ATRP. CV measurements confirmed that incorporation of EDGs resulted in an increased stability of the Cu^(II)/L complexes. This resulted in increased polymerizations rates for catalyst complexes formed with ligands with EDG substituents on the aromatic ring, while still producing polymers with narrow M_(w)/M_(n) values and pre-determined molecular weights, optionally with ppm concentration of catalysts in the polymerization medium.

A further demonstration of utility is exemplified by using ATRP procedures that utilize parts-per-million catalyst loadings for polymerization of radically (co)polymerizable monomers with highly active R-bpy ligands while producing polymers with low M_(w)/M_(n) values under mild reaction conditions.

EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION OF EXAMPLES

Chemicals. MA (99%, Aldrich) and MMA (99%, Aldrich) were passed through a column filled with basic alumina prior to use. Copper(II) bromide (Cu^(II)Br₂, 99.999%, Aldrich), copper(I) bromide (Cu^(I)Br, 99.999%, Aldrich), copper wire (dia.=0.5 mm, 99.9%, Alfa Aesar), ethyl α-bromoisobutyrate (EBiB, 98%, Aldrich), ethyl α-bromophenylacetate (EBPA, 97%, Aldrich), tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (NBu4PF6, ≧98%, Aldrich), 2,2′-bipyridyne (H-bpy, ≧99%, Aldrich), 4,4′-dimethyl-2,2′-bipyridyne (Me-bpy, 99%, Aldrich), 4,4′-dimethyloxy-2,2′-bipyridyne (MeO-bpy, 97%, Aldrich), 4,4′-dichloro-2,2′-bipyridyne (Cl-bpy), and 4,4′-dinonyl-2,2′-bipyridyne (dN-bpy, 97%, Aldrich) were used as received. 4,4′-(Dimethylamino)-2,2′-bipyridine ((Me)₂N-bpy) was synthesized according to literature procedures. All the other reagents and solvents were purchased at the high available purity and used as received.

Instrumentation. All cyclic voltammograms (CV) were measured at 25° C. with a Gamry Reference 600 potentiostat. Solutions of CuBr₂/R-bpy (1.0/2.0 mM) were prepared in dry solvent containing 0.1 M NBu₄PF₆ as the supporting electrolyte. Measurements were carried out under a N₂ atmosphere at a scanning rate (v) of 0.1 V s⁻¹, using a glassy carbon disk and platinum wire as the working and counter electrode, respectively. Potentials were measured versus a SCE reference electrode (Gamry) equipped with a 0.1 M NBu₄PF₆ salt bridge to minimize Cl⁻ ion contamination of the analyte. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was used to determine number average molecular weight (M_(n)) and M_(w)/M_(n) values. The GPC was conducted with a Waters 515 HPLC Pump and Waters 2414 Refractive Index Detector using PSS columns (Styrogel 102, 103, 105 A) in tetrahydrofuran (THF) as eluent at a flow rate of 1 mL/min at 35° C. The column system was calibrated with 12 linear polystyrene (PSt, M_(n)=376˜2,570,000) and 12 linear poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA, M_(n)=800˜2,570,000) standards.

Characterization. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is a convenient method to evaluate the catalytic potential of a spectrum of TPMA* ligands in comparison with TPMA ligands. In FIG. 3, the correlation between half-wave potentials (E_(1/2)) and K_(ATRP) suggests the novel Cu/TPMA*-3 complex will be highly active. Halidophilicity (K_(Halido)) (donor-acceptor formation of the Cu^(II)—X bond from Cu^(II) and X⁻) is indicated by the shift of the CV to more negative E values, FIG. 3A, compare solid line to dashed line, and refers directly to K_(ATRP), in addition the stability constants (β^(II)/β^(I))can be calculated from the standard potentials; e.g. the values for TPMA*-3 and bromine are 2.4×10²⁰ and 3.6×10⁴ respectively. A standard initiator, ethyl α-bromoisobutyrate (EBriB), was utilized to estimate the catalytic potential of the novel catalyst system. FIG. 3B presents the resulting catalytic response against the saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE). The prospective activity of the CuBr/TPMA*-3 system and the E_(pc) of the system with EBriB compared to unsubstituted TPMA can be estimated from the difference of the cathodic peak potential (E_(pc)) of (eq 2) as K_(ATRP) basically depends only on halidophilicity (K_(Halido)) and on electron transfer (K_(ET)).

E_(1/2)(CuBr₂/L(V vs. SCE))˜log(K_(Halido)/K_(ET))   (2)

In addition, a direct comparison of catalytic activity for TPMA and TPMA*-3 was also performed against Ag/AgI reference electrode and confirmed the high activity.

Conversion of monomer was determined with known concentrations of polymers in THF. Absolute values of PMA may be calculated utilizing universal calibration as reported in literature. ¹H NMR spectra were obtained in d-chloroform using a Bruker 300 MHz spectrometer with a delay time of 3 seconds.

Example 1 Synthesis of 4,4′-(Dimethylamino)-2,2′-Bipyridine

4,4′-(Dimethylamino)-2,2′-bipyridine (4,4′-(Me)₂N-bpy) was prepared in a five step synthesis as shown in Scheme 18. A copy of the ¹H NMR of the final product is provided in FIG. 4 and the peaks assigned. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 3.12 (s, 12H), 6.54 (dd, 2H), 7.72 (d, 2H), 8.33 (d, 2H). ¹H NMR spectra were obtained for all other exemplary ligands discussed herein and the spectra confirmed the expected structures of the ligands.

Example 2 Synthesis of Derivatives of TPMA 2A) Synthesis of TPMA*-3

Step 1) Synthesis of 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridine. 3.32 g 2-Chlormethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl pyridine hydrochloride was dissolved in 30 ml anhydrous DMF. 1.08 g Potassium phthalimide was added and the solution was stirred for 5 minutes. After the addition of K₂CO₃ the mixture was heated under nitrogen at 85° C. for 19 h and then a sample was analyzed by GC-MS. The solution was allowed to cool to room temp. and an off white solid precipitated of solution after adding saturated NaHCO₃. The solid was filtered, redissolved in CH₂Cl₂, dried over MgSO₄ and concentrated in vacuo to give 1.51 g of the pure product as a white solid. ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR confirmed synthesis of the product.

Step 2) Synthesis of 2-Aminomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine Anhydrous hydrazine (932.8 mg, 30.54 mmol) was added under a N₂ atmosphere to a stirred solution of 2-phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridine (1.51 g, 5.099 mmol) in 50 mL (anhydrous: EtOH/toluene=2/1). The mixture was heated to 85° C. for 24 h during which time a white precipitate was formed. After cooling to room temperature the remaining solvent was removed under high vacuum and the residue was dissolved in 46 mL of 40% KOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂ the solution was dried over MgSO₄ and solvent removed to give a quantitative yield of a pale yellow oil (845 mg), which was confirmed to be pure by GC-MS (EI). Afterwards the product was reacted directly with 2-chloromethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine hydrochloride. MS (EI) confirmed synthesis of the product.

Step 3) Tris[{(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-2-pyridyl}methyl]amine (TPMA*-3). 2.66 g of the amine (0.016 mol) and 7.125 g of the chloride (0.0321 mol) (see Scheme 10) and 8.5 g of Na₂CO₃ were added to a two necked flask and dissolved in 300 mL HPLC grade acetonitrile. 3 mg of TBABr was added to the stirred solution under nitrogen. The mixture was heated to reflux, T=82° C., under nitrogen then after 48 h samples were taken for mass spectroscopy and TLC. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and poured into 150 mL 1 M NaOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂, 3 times, the combined organic fractions were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure to give 6.177 g of the crude product as an orange/brown solid. Purification over alumina (MeOH:EtOAc=5:95) gave 3.06 g (41% yield) of a pure yellowish solid whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR.

2B) Synthesis of TPMA-OMe-3 Derivative, Scheme 10

Step 1) 4-Methoxy-2-picoline N-oxide. 4-Nitro-2-picoline N-Oxide (11.30 g, 73.3 mmol) was solved in 450 mL of MeOH. 1.9 g Na (83.2 mmol) was dissolved in 150 mL MeOH and added to the reaction mixture. The mixture was stirred at 60° C. until the reaction was completed (monitored by GC-MS; ˜3 h). Afterwards the solution was allowed to cool to room temperature and the volatile organic solvent was evaporated. The methanol was removed by rotary evaporation and the product was dissolved CH₂Cl₂. The extract was washed with a saturated aqueous solution of NaHCO₃ and dried over MgSO₄. 5.98 g (58.7% yield) of a yellowish oil was obtained. ¹H NMR confirmed the purity of the product.

Step 2) 2-Hydroxymethyl-4-methoxypyridine. 4-Methoxy-2-picoline N-oxide (926 mg, 6.65 mmol) was solved in 20 mL acetic anhydride and was heated reflux and stirred overnight. After the mixture was allowed to cool to r.t. it was neutralized (pH≧9) with saturated Na₂CO₃ solution. The brown solution was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ three times and CH₂Cl₂ was removed by rotary evaporation. The remaining residue was dissolved in an aqueous solution of ˜1.2 M HCl (20 mL) and the mixture was heated to 70° C. for 3 h. After cooling to r.t. the mixture was neutralized with saturated Na₂CO₃ solution and extracted three times with CH₂Cl₂ and dried over K₂CO₃. After removal of the volatile compounds 760 mg of a crude brown product were obtained. The crude product was purified by column chromatography (silica, 10% MeOH/90% CH₂Cl₂) to give 462 mg (=50%) of the product. ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR confirmed synthesis.

Step 3) 2-Chloromethyl-4-methoxypyridine. 5.91 g (49.7 mmol) Thionylchloride was slowly added to a stirred solution of 5.47 g (39.3 mmol) 2-hydroxymethyl-4-methoxypyridine in 150 mL CH₂Cl₂. The reaction mixture was allowed to stir overnight and aqueous Na₂CO₃ was slowly added until the pH=8-9. The aqueous phase was extracted three times with CH₂Cl₂ and the combined organic layer dried over MgSO₄ and CH₂Cl₂ removed in vacuo. The brownish crude product was purified via column chromatography over silica gel (50% ethyl acetate/50% hexane) to give 3.92 g (63.5%) of clean product confirmed by ¹H NMR.

Step 4) 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxypyridine. Potassiumphthalimide (2.167 g, 11.7 mmol) was added to a solution of 1.85 g 2-chlormethyl-4-methoxy-pyridine (11.7 mmol) in 50 ml anhydrous DMF then the solution was stirred for 5 minutes. K₂CO₃ (3.236 g, 23.4 mmol) was then added to the mixture and the reaction was heated under nitrogen at 85° C. for two days and the reaction was followed by GC-MS. After complete consumption of the starting material the solution was allowed to cool to room temperature and a white solid precipitated when adding saturated NaHCO₃. The off white solid was filtered, resolved in CH₂Cl₂, dried over MgSO₄ and concentrated in vacuo to give an off-white solid. ¹H NMR confirmed product synthesis.

Step 5) 2-Aminomethyl-4-methoxypyridine. 1.13 g of 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxypyridine (4.2 mmol) was dissolved in a mixture of toluene/ethanol (15 mL/30 mL) in a three-necked flask and degassed with N₂ Anhydrous hydrazine was added dropwise to the solution then the mixture was heated under reflux overnight. The next day the reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the remaining solvent was removed by evaporation. Then 50 mL 40% KOH was added to the mixture and then extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (3 times), dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the remaining solvent evaporated to give quantitative yield of the crude product, which is directly used afterwards. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ ppm: 8.370 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 6.825 (d, J=2.6 Hz, 1H), 6.687 (dd, J=5.7 Hz, J′=2.6 Hz, 1H), 3.929 (s, 2H), 3.851 (s, 3H); 1.700 (s, br, 2H).

Step 6) Tris((4-methoxy)-2-pyridyl)methyl-amine (TPMA-OMe-3). 0.582 g of 2-aminomethyl-4-methoxypyridine (4.2 mmol) and 1.327 g (8.4 mmol) of the corresponding chloride and 2.231 g of Na₂CO₃ (21.1 mmol) were added to a two necked flask and dissolved in 80 mL HPLC grade CH₃CN. 3 mg of TBABr was then added to the stirred solution under nitrogen. The mixture was heated to reflux for two days. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and poured into 50 mL 1 M NaOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂ (3 times), the combined organic fractions were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure to give a crude brown colored product. The crude product was purified with column chromatography (silica gel, gradient starting from CH₂Cl₂:MeOH=97:3) to give 0.788 g (49.4%) of product whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR.

2C) Synthesis of TPMA-NMe-3 Derivative Scheme 13

Step 1) 2-Hydroxymethy-4-dimethylaminopyridine. Dimethylamine hydrochloride (17.12 g, 0.21 mol) and NaOH (7.875 g, 0.195 mol) were added to a solution of 2-hydroxymethyl-4-chloropyridine (6 g, 0.042 mol) in 20 mL H₂O in a pressure tube. The mixture was heated to 150° C. for 48 h. Afterwards the solvent was removed by evaporation under high vacuum. The remaining residue was extracted three times with CH₂Cl₂, and the combined extracts were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the solvent was evaporated to give the crude product.

Step 2) 2-Hydroxymethyl-4-chloro-pyridine. 4.377 g thionylchloride (0.0368 mol) was added dropwise to a stirred solution of 2-hydroxymethyl-4-dimethylamino-pyridine (0.0307 mol) in 150 mL dichloromethane then the mixture was stirred overnight. The next day an aqueous solution of Na₂CO₃ was added to the slurry of a brown solid until the pH reached 8-9. The mixture was extracted three times with CH₂Cl₂ and the combined extracts dried over MgSO₄. 3.23 g (62%%) of the crude product was obtained after removal of the solvent.

Step 3) 2-Chloromethyl-4-chloro-pyridine. 11.893 g of 2-hydroxymethyl-4-chloro-pyridine (0.083 mol) was added to 90 mL CH₂Cl₂ and stirred at room temperature to form a clear solution. SO₂Cl was then added dropwise to the solution. During the addition procedure a reddish/white precipitate appeared. After stirring overnight the suspension became orange and a solution of Na₂CO₃ was added to neutralize the solution and an excess was added until a pH 8-9 was attained. Afterwards the aqueous phase was extracted three times with CH₂Cl₂, dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the organic solvent was removed by rotary evaporator to give 10.908 g of the crude 2-chloromethyl-4-chloro-pyridine (0.0673 mol) 81.3% yield.

Step 4) 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-chloropyridine. Potassium phthalimide (21.822 g, 0.1178 mol) was added to a stirred solution of 2-chloromethyl-4-chloro-pyridine (10.908 g, 0.0673 mol) in anhydrous DMF and then the mixture was degassed via bubbling with nitrogen. The mixture was stirred at 88° C. for 50 h under nitrogen. Afterwards the solution was cooled down to room temperature and additional DMF was added to precipitate the product out of saturated NaHCO₃ solution. The precipitate was filtered, air dried and dissolved in dichloromethane (DCM). After drying over MgSO₄ and removal of the organic solvent a crude white product were obtained. The product was further purified by column chromatography with silica gel.

Step 5) 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-dimethylaminopyridine. 17.86 g of 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-chloropyridine, 0.22 mol of (CH₃)₂NH.HCl and 40 mL water were added to a pressure tube. Then 8.76 g NaOH (0.22 mol) was added in one lot then the pressure tube was sealed and heated with stirring to 150° C. After 48 h the mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the water was removed under high vacuum. ¹H NMR showed the crude product had some impurities but was directly used in the next step.

Step 6) 2-Aminomethyl-4-dimethylaminopyridine. The crude reaction mixture of 2-phthalimidomethyl-4-dimethylaminopyridine was dissolved in 250 mL MeOH to give a brown clear solution. 4 mL of anhydrous hydrazine were added to this solution and the resulting mixture was heated to reflux under nitrogen overnight. Afterwards the reaction was cooled to room temperature and the reaction mixture was extracted three times with DCM, dried over MgSO₄. The DCM was removed by rotary evaporator to give a brownish crude product (730 mg, 13.5%). A second extraction was carried out the next day to give an additional 220 mg (4.1%) of a yellow/brownish product whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR.

2D) Synthesis of TPMA*-2, Scheme 12

Bis-(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine. 1.46 g 2-Picolylamine (13.5 mmol), 6.0 g 2-chloromethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl pyridine hydrochloride (27 mmol) and 7.25 g of Na₂CO₃ were added to a two necked flask and dissolved in 200 mL HPLC grade CH₃CN. Then, 3 mg of TBABr were added to the stirred solution under nitrogen. The mixture was heated to reflux and the progress of the reaction was followed by mass spectroscopy and TLC over a 48 h time frame. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and poured into 150 mL 1 M NaOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂ (3 times), the combined organic fractions were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure to give an orange/brown crude product (m=6.177 g). Purification was carried out be passing a solution of the crude product in a mixture of MeOH:EtOAc=5:95 over alumina resulting in 4.9 g (89%) of a pure yellow oil whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and MS (ESI) m/z: 407.2 [M+H]^(|).

2E) Synthesis of TPMA*-1, Scheme 11

Step 1) 2-Phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridine. 1.55 g 2-Chlormethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl pyridine hydrochloride was dissolved in 30 ml anhydrous DMF then 1.08 g of potassium phthalimide was added and the solution was stirred for 5 minutes. After the addition of K₂CO₃ the mixture was heated under nitrogen at 85° C. for 19 h as the progress of the reaction was followed by GC-MS. The solution was allowed to cool to room temperature and a white solid precipitated after adding saturated NaHCO₃. The off white solid was filtered, resolved in CH₂Cl₂, dried over MgSO₄ and concentrated in vacuo to give 1.54 g (75%) of a white solid whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and MS (EI): 298.1 (18), [M+H]^(|) 297.1 (100), 296.3 (22).

Step 2) 2-Aminomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine. Anhydrous hydrazine (932.8 mg, 30.54 mmol) was added to a stirred solution of 2-phthalimidomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridine (1.51 g, 5.099 mmol) in 50 mL (anhydrous: EtOH/toluene=2/1) under N₂. The mixture was heated to 85° C. for 24 h during which time a white precipitate was formed. After cooling to room temperature the remaining solvent was removed under high vacuum and the residue was dissolved in 46 mL of 40% KOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂ the product was dried over MgSO₄ to give a pale yellow oil (quantitative yield 845 mg), which was confirmed to be pure by GC-MS (EI). Afterwards the product was reacted directly with 2-Chloromethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine hydrochloride. MS(EI) m/z: 167(100) [M+H]⁺, 166(52), 165(16), 151(48), 149(41), 138(22), 136(10), 123(14), 122(25), 121(16), 120(10), 119(17), 107(13), 106(16), 94(14), 92(14), 77(12).

Step 3) (4-Methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA*-1). 1.53 g of 2-aminomethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine (0.0092 mol), 3.014 g 2-chloromethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine hydrochloride (0.0184 mol) and 4.9 g of Na₂CO₃ were added to a two necked flask and dissolved in 300 mL HPLC grade CH₃CN. Then 3 mg of TBABr were added to the stirred solution under nitrogen. The mixture was heated to reflux (T=82° C.) under nitrogen and the progress of the reaction was followed by mass spectroscopy and TLC over 48 h. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and poured into 150 mL 1 M NaOH. After extraction with CH₂Cl₂ (4 times), the combined organic fractions were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and the solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure to give an orange/brown crude product (m=3.24 g). Purification was accomplished by passing a solution of the crude product in a mixture of MeOH:EtOAc=5:95 over alumina to yield 2.6 g (81%) of a pure yellowish oil whose structure was confirmed by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and MS (ESI) m/z: 349.2 [M+H]^(|).

Characterization

Electrochemical Analysis of TPMA* catalyst complexes. The experimental and calculated data and comparison with TPMA are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated FIG. 3. First the CV of the Cu(OTf)₂ complex formed with TPMA*-3 ligand was measured in a 1:1 ratio (solid line) followed by addition of tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr) as Br source (dashed line), FIG. 3A. Finally the initiator EBiB (=ethyl 2-bromoisobutyrate) was added (black line), FIG. 3B. Known literature data was used for comparison with the unsubstituted TPMA ligand. Table 4 shows that the relative stability constants constantly increase from TPMA<TMPA*-1<TPMA-OMe<TPMA*-2<TPMA*-3 indicating an increasingly stronger stabilization of the Cu^(II) oxidation state. Remarkably the activity of Cu/TPMA* is three orders of magnitude higher then for normal Cu/TPMA, previously one of the most active ATRP catalysts. The catalyst complex was expected to be too active for a “normal” ATRP therefore polymerization of butyl acrylate was conducted under low catalyst conditions. Stopped flow measurement of K_(ATRP). With the development of more and more active ligands, it is necessary at some point to go to faster and faster time-resolved spectroscopic techniques in order to obtain accurate values for k_(a) and K_(ATRP) which is required for transition metal complexes formed with these novel ligands as predicted by non-time resolved techniques such as CV. Stopped flow techniques are the only way to determine the speed of very fast thermally-initiated bimolecular reactions. All measured K_(ATRP) values are summarized in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Values measured for K_(ATRP) with copper complexes formed with different ligands Ligand TPMA TPMA TPMA*-1 TPMA*-2 TPMA*-3 TPMA-OME Me₆TREN Solvent MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN DMSO Initiator EBiB MBP MBP MBP MBP MBP MBP k_(t) 2.5E⁹   3.5E⁹  3.5E⁹  3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 0.8E⁹   K_(ATRP)   8E⁻⁶ 1.8E⁻⁶   2E⁻⁵   5E⁻⁴   8E⁻⁶   2E⁻⁴ Tang^(a)   9E⁻⁶ 3.2E⁻⁷   3E⁻⁶ (MeCN) ^(a)Values from Tang et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 1598-1604.

Determination of values for k_(a). When measuring k_(a), one syringe was filled with Cu^(I)/L and 20 fold excess TEMPO. The second syringe was filled with RX, usually a 10 or 20 fold excess compared to the Cu^(I)/L. A typical result of the measurement is provided in FIG. 5 which shows very good mono-exponential behavior. The following values were obtained for k_(a) with substituted TPMA ligands (Table 6). One can see that K_(ATRP) is not only influenced by a changes in k_(a) but also by k_(d) for the TPMA* series. It seems that there is a factor of 4 increase in activity and a factor of 1.5 to 4 decrease in k_(d).

TABLE 6 Measured k_(a) Values TPMA TPMA TPMA*-1 TPMA*-2 TPMA*-3 TPMA-OME Me₆TREN Solvent MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN MeCN DMSO Initiator EBiB MBP MBP MBP MBP MBP MBP k_(t) 2.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 3.5E⁹ 0.8E⁹ K_(ATRP)   8E⁻⁶ 1.8E⁻⁶    2E⁻⁵   5E⁻⁴   8E⁻⁶   2E⁻⁴ Tang   9E⁻⁶ 3.2E⁻⁷  3E (MeCN) k_(a) 1000 125 500 2100 8400 1200 660 k_(a) Tang  31.2    3.8   227 (MeCN) k_(d) 1.2E⁸ 3.9E⁸ 2.7E⁸   1E⁸ 1.7E⁷ 1.5E⁸ 3.3E⁶

Example 3 ATRP with Low Concentrations of Catalyst with Designed Ligands 3A) ICAR ATRP with Various Members of the TPMA* Family of Ligands

In light of the expected high rate of polymerization and based on PREDICI® simulation, ICAR ATRP appeared to be a very promising approach for a well controlled ATRP with the novel catalyst Cu/TPMA*-3. Conditions for the polymerizations were taken from PNAS 2006, 103, 15309-15314. The ratio of reagents used in each reaction were: [BA]:[EBiB]:[AIBN]:[TPMA*-X]:[CuCl₂]=[160]:[1]:[0.2]:[0.03]:[0.008], with [BA]=5.88M, 20% (v/v) anisole with the ratio of Cu:TPMA*-X held constant=1:3.75, conversion was determined by ¹H-NMR, and the reactions were conducted at T=60° C. Table 7 summarize all data obtained for the ICAR ATRP experiments at 50 ppm catalyst loading.

TABLE 7 ICAR ATRP of BA conducted with 50 ppm catalyst loading for TPMA and all TPMA* derivatives listed in Schemes 6 and 7: Conv.(4 h) Time Ligand^([a]) [%] [h] M_(n, theo) ^([b]) M_(n, GPC) M_(w)/M_(n) TPMA 38 4 8000 8230 1.67 TPMA*-1 87.5 4 18150 18800 1.32 TPMA*-2 82.9 4 17200 17650 1.17 TPMA*-3 82.8 4 17200 17400 1.17 TPMA-OMe-3 50.3 4 10500 11700 1.19 ^([a])Conditions: [BA]:[EBiB]:[AIBN]:[TPMA*-X]:[CuCl₂] = [160]:[1]:[0.2]:[0.03]:[0.008], [BA] = 5.88M, 20% (v/v) anisole, the Cu:TPMA*-X = 1:3.75 ratio was held constant, conversion was determined by ¹H-NMR, T = 60° C. ^([b])M_(n, theo) = [M]/[I] × conv. × M_(Monomer) + M_(Initiator).

The results clearly show that the level of control, evaluated by breadth of M_(w)/M_(n), increased as the activity of the catalyst systems increased. TPMA*-3 gave the best control with 50 ppm catalyst loading. The measured M_(w)/M_(n) was reduced as one transitioned from TPMA to TPMA*-3 and correlation between M_(n,theo) to M_(n,exp) increased. TPMA-OMe-3 differed from TPMA*-2 in terms of conversion (Δ=30%) and k_(app) (0.298 hr⁻¹ vs 0.455 hr⁻¹), which would be expected from very similar estimated K_(ATRP) (TPMA*-2)=100 and K_(ATRP) (TPMA-OMe3)=120 (compared to TPMA). These results correlate well with the values for the polymerization rate constants determined by stopped flow measurements. A series of ICAR ATRP reactions were then conducted with 10 ppm catalyst (Table 8).

TABLE 8 ICAR ATRP at 10 ppm catalyst loading. k_(app) Ligand^([a]) Conv. [%] Time [h] M_(n,theo) ^([c]) M_(n,GPC) M_(w)/M_(n) [hr⁻¹] TPMA 86.1 3 17900 27300 3.1 — TPMA*-1 92.1 4 19100 21700 1.54 0.75 TPMA*-2 88.2 4 18300 21100 1.53 0.57 TPMA*-3 88.7 4 18400 16900 1.44 0.59 TPMA- 87.8 4 18200 18500 1.52 0.64 OMe3 ^([a])Conditions: [BA]:[EBiB]:[AIBN]:[TPMA*-X]:[CuCl₂] = [160]:[1]:[0.2]:[0.006]:[0.0016], [BA] = 5.88M, 20% (v/v) anisole, the Cu:TPMA*-X = 1:3.75 ratio was held constant, conversion was determined by ¹H-NMR, T = 60° C.; ^([b])M_(n,theo) = [M]/[I] × conv. × M_(Monomer) + M_(Initiator).

Reactions conducted with 10 ppm catalyst loading more clearly show the differences between the ligands than reactions conducted with 50 ppm catalyst. While pseudo first order kinetic plots gave similar values for the rates of polymerization, the M_(n,exp) vs M_(n,theo) analysis reveals a certain discrepancy and slight differences can be detected in M_(w)/M_(n) with the results with TPMA*-3 providing the narrowest value indicating the highest level of control at this low level of catalyst.

3B) ARGET ATRP with TPMA *-3

The first attempt to conduct an ARGET polymerization of butyl acrylate (nBA) in anisole (20% v/v) (Conditions from Angew. Chem. 2006, 118, 4594-4598) was performed with a catalyst loading of 50 ppm copper. Cu^(II)Cl₂ was used as the copper source with an excess of TPMA*-3 ligand (Cu:TPMA*-3=1:3.75). The ratio of reagents were: [nBA]:[EBiB]:[Sn(EH)₂]:[TPMA*-3]:[CuCl₂]=[160]:[1]:[0.1]:[0.03]:[0.008]. The concentration of [BA] was 5.88M (5 mL scale) and the polymerization was performed at 60° C. (Table 9, entry 1). The result showed a fast well controlled polymerization. A polymerization carried out under “normal” ATRP conditions with TPMA as ligand resulted in a maximum of 71% conversion after 22 h, however a lower PDI=1.16 was observed for the ARGET ATRP with TPMA*-3. Therefore the system was further optimized to achieve both a fast polymerization and lower polydispersity. First the temperature was reduced to 40° C. whereas all other parameters were held constant then the amount of reducing agent was decreased.

TABLE 9 ARGET ATRP of nBA and MA with Sn(EH)₂ as reducing agent and SARA with Cu(0). Cat. Loading^(b) Entry^([a]) [M] [Sn(EH)₂] [ppm] T [° C.] t[min] Conv. [%] M_(n,GPC) M_(n,theo) ^([c]) M_(w)/M_(n)  1 160 0.1 50 60 1260 80 16600 16400 1.16  2^([d]) 160 0.1 50 60 1260 60 14410 12300 1.12  3 160 0.2 100 60 310 72 11000 15800 1.15  4 160 0.2 100 60 1260 91 20100 18900 1.09  5 160 0.1 50 40 1260 70 16020 14600 1.18  6 160 0.05 50 60 1260 72 16300 14900 1.16  7 2000 0.1 50 60 2730 27 29500 70500 1.29  8^([e]) 200 n.d. n.d. 25 70 44 8380 7590 1.49  9^([e]) 200 n.d. n.d. 25 120 54 10850 9290 1.19 10^([d,e]) 200 n.d. n.d. 25 120 44 9110 7570 1.44 ^([a])ARGET ATRP conditions:[nBA]:[EBiB]:[Sn(EH)2]:[TPMA*]:[CuCl2] = 160:1:0.1:0.03-0.06:0.008-0.016, [nBA] = 5.88M, 20% (v/v) anisole, conversion was determined either by ¹H-NMR or gravimetry. ^(b)molar ratio of CuCl₂ to monomer; ^([c]) M_(n,theo) = [M]/[I] × conv. × MWMonomer +MWInitiator; ^([d]) TPMA was used instead of TPMA*; ^([e]) SARA ATRP conditions were changed to: [MA]:[MBP]:[TPMA*] = [200]:[1]:[0.1], [MA] = 7.4M, with Cu(0) wire (d = 1 mm) 33.3% (v/v) DMSO, T = 25° C., n.d. = not defined.

Under ARGET conditions the Cu/TPMA*-3 catalyst showed a major increase in reactivity compared to normal TPMA, Table 9, entries 1 and 2. Increasing the amount of reducing agent and catalyst to 0.2 equivalents and 100ppm respectively, conversion increased to 91% and excellent correlations of experimental (_(Mn,exp) 1 and theoretical molecular weights (M_(n,theo)) were achieved. In addition with only 50ppm of catalyst and only 0.05 equivalents of Sn(EH)₂, 72% conversion was observed with controlled radical polymerization behaviour.

The novel catalyst system shows its full potential when targeting higher degrees of polymerization, Table 9, entry 7. The Cu/TPMA*-3 catalyst complex achieved a conversion of 30% polybutylacrylate with narrow polydispersity, in contrast to the currently most active ARGET system, based on Cu/Me₆TREN, which showed no conversion. However, lower M_(n,exp) than M _(n,theo) implies that a certain amount of chain transfer occurred during the reaction. Thus, Cu(0) wire was utilized as reducing agent and supplementary activator, SARA ATRP.

3C) SARA ATRP

The results of SARA reactions carried out according to previously reported conditions [Macromolecules 2012, 45, 78-86] are provided in Table 9, entries 8-10. Again, the polymers prepared with the TPMA*-3 based catalyst gave, in addition to higher conversion, significantly better control over molecular weight distributions (compare M_(w)/M_(n) (TPMA*-3)=1.19 to M_(w)/M_(n) (TPMA)=1.44).

3D) eATRP

A series of eATRP reactions of BA with 100ppm catalyst loading were performed. The applied potential (E_(app)) was chosen to be 80 mV past the cathodic peak potential (E_(pc)). [BA]/[EBiB]/[TPMA*]/[Cu^(II)(OTf)2]/[TBABr]=300/1/0.03/0.03/0.03. Controlled-potential electrolysis experiments were carried out with a PARC 263A potentiostat in a thermostated three-electrode cell using both platinum (Pt) disk (3 mm diameter, Gamry) and Pt gauze (100 mesh, geometrical area ˜2.5 cm², Alfa Aesar) working electrodes. An Ag/AgI/I^(−[6]) and Pt mesh were used as the reference and counter electrodes, respectively. The electrolysis experiments were carried out in a divided cell, using a glass frit and a salt bridge made of methylcellulose gel saturated with Et₄NBF₄ to separate the cathodic and anodic compartments. All experiments were performed at 25° C. During electrolysis, the cathodic compartment was maintained under vigorous magnetic stirring and an N₂ atmosphere. Prior to each experiment, the working Pt disk electrode was polished with a 0.25-μm diamond paste and sonicated in ethanol. The electrochemical cell was first charged with supporting electrolyte (1.603 g TBAClO₄) and then put under a slow N₂ flow. After 15 minutes of purging, 13 mL of BA, 10 mL of DMF, 0.18 mL of a 0.05 M solution of Cu^(II)/TPMA*/TBABr (equimolar), and 45 μL of neat EBiB were added to the electrochemical cell. Samples were withdrawn periodically for ¹H NMR and GPC analysis for conversion, and molecular weight and distribution determination, respectively. There was a longer inhibition period with TPMA*-3 but the actual polymerization was faster and M_(n,GPC) was closer to M_(n,theor).

Example 4 Application Cu/TPMA*-3 Targeting High DP

An ARGET ATRP targeting a DP=2000 was conducted with 10 ppm Cu/TPMA* and a ratio of reagents: [BA]:[EBiB]:[Sn(EH)₂]:[Cu^(II)Cl₂]:[TPMA*/Me₆TREN]=[2000]:[1]:[0.1]:[0.02]:[0.075] in anisole 20% (v/v) and T=60° C. . The results of ARGET ATRP reactions conducted with ligands TPMA*-3 and Me₆TREN are shown in Table 10 and demonstrate that the TPMA*-3 based catalyst complex provided a controlled polymerization while the Me₆TREN catalyst was not active in such dilute conditions.

TABLE 10 Comparison of ARGET ATRP reactions targeting high degrees of polymerization with two active ligands. Time Conv.(NMR) (h) [%] M_(n, GPC) M_(n, theo) PDI TPMA*-3 45.5 27.4 29500 70500 1.29 TPMA*-3 79.6 29.2 29700 75000 1.34 Me₆TREN 79.6 18.6 No No No polymer polymer polymer

Example 5 Polymerization of N-VinylPyrrolidone with the Cu/TPMA*-3 System 5A) ICAR ATRP

The conditions selected for ICAR ATRP of N-Vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) employed a mole ratio of reagents: [NVP]:[MClP]:[AIBN]:[Cu]:[TPMA*-3]=[100]:[1]:[0.2]:[0.02]:[0.04]. Polystyrene standards were used for the GPC and provided the following information, after 6 hr conversion was 55.9% and the polymer had a polydispersity of 1.37. Continuing the reaction for 21 hr provided 94.4% conversion and a polymer with a polydispersity of 1.18.

5B) Normal ATRP

NVP polymerization with the Cu/TPMA*-3 system under normal ATRP conditions were also examined as it seemed to be the better match for a less active monomer such as NVP. The conditions selected for the normal ATRP of NVP were the following: [NVP]:[MCP]:[Cu(I)]:[Cu(II)]:[TPMA*-3]=[100]:[1]:[0.2]:[0.02]:[0.22]; T=50° C., DMF (20%). Conversion was determined by ¹H-NMR and provided a linear increase in molecular weight with conversion reaching 45% in 3 hr.

Example 6 ATRP of n-BA Using BPMODA and BPMODA* as Ligands 6A) Synthesis of BPMODA*

The procedure is shown schematically in Scheme 4 and shows the dialkylation of 1-octadecylamine (OD-NH₂) with 2-(chloromethyl)-3,5-dimethyl-4-pyridinyl methyl ether hydrochloride (PyCl.HCl) in the presence of a base. Pyridine hydrochloride was dissolved in water followed by addition of 5.3 N NaOH_(aq.) and then a solution of octadecylamine (OD-NH₂) in DCM. The mixture was stirred overnight; NaOH solution was added to maintain the pH at ˜8-9. Reaction progress was monitored by ¹H NMR. After one week there was 95% conversion of starting materials, therefore, the reaction was allowed to stir for one more week allowing for higher conversion. The reaction was stopped after two weeks at >98% conversion of reactants. The organic layer was separated, washed with 15% NaOH_(aq).and dried with anhydrous MgSO₄ and solvent was removed. Yellowish crystals of BPMODA* were obtained. ¹H NMR confirmed the formation of BPMODA* ligand. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 0.85 (t, 3H, CH₂Me), 1.00-1.22 (m, 30H, (CH₂)₁₅Me), 1.40 (m, 2H, CH₂CH₂(CH₂)₁₅Me), 2.04 (s, 6H, 5-Py-CH₃), 2.18 (s, 6H, 3-Py-CH₃), 2.42 (m, 2H, CH₂CH₂(CH₂)₁₅Me), 3.63 (s, 4H, 2-Py-CH₂), 3.67 (s, 6H, 4-Py-OCH₃), 8.11 (s, 2H, 5-PyH),

6B) BPMODA* for a Normal ARGET ATRP of Butyl Acrylate

The reaction conditions are given in Table 11. From both the plots in FIG. 7 it is evident that while there is a difference in the level of control between the two polymerizations, it is small. BPMODA does show poorer initiation efficiency in comparison to BPMODA* but the polymerizations conducted with BPMODA* were faster.

TABLE 11 Reaction conditions and results for ARGET-ATRP of poly(butyl acrylate) using BPMODA and BPMODA*. Entry nBA EBiB CuBr CuBr₂ Ligand T (h) Conv. M_(n,GPC) M_(n,Th) MWD BPMODA 200 1 0.80 0.20 1 48 0.56 14500 14 400 1.04 BPMODA* 200 1 0.80 0.20 1 24 0.88 17900 22 600 1.08 BPMODA 200 1 0.95 0.05 1 50 0.31 10300 8 000 1.05 BPMODA* 200 1 0.95 0.05 1 7.5 0.82 19300 20 900 1.08 BPMODA 200 1 0.99 0.01 1 48 0.63 12800 16000 1.13 BPMODA* 200 1 0.99 0.01 1 6 0.84 18400 21400 1.09

To gain a better perspective on the rate of polymerization differences between the ligands, normal ATRP was utilized. Three different ratios of Cu^(I)Br to Cu^(II)Br₂ were be used to determine the effect of ligand on the rates of polymerization: 80:20, 95:5, and 99:1 of CuBr:CuBr₂. The first polymerization tested utilized a ratio of 95:5 of CuBr to CuBr₂;

reaction conditions are given in Table 12.

TABLE 12 Reaction conditions for ATRP of n-BA with BPMODA and BPMODA* as ligands. Entry^(a) nBA EBiB CuBr CuBr₂ Ligand t (h) Conv. M_(n,GPC) M_(n,Th) MWD BPMODA 200 1 0.95 0.05 1 50 0.31 10300 8000 1.05 BPMODA* 200 1 0.95 0.05 1 4 0.69 19100 17700 1.06 ^(a)Polymerization conducted in 20% anisole at 60° C.

As expected, the reaction with a copper complex containing the BPMODA* ligand reacted at a much faster rate than BPMODA. The reaction with BPMODA as ligand reached 30% monomer conversion in 50 h, while the complex containing BPMODA* reached nearly 70% monomer conversion in only 4 h. Regardless of time, both polymers showed linear first-order kinetics and narrow molecular weight distributions. These results correlate with the K_(ATRP) values obtained from the CV.

6C) Miniemulsion ATRP

Partition experiments were conducted to confirm that the Cu/BPMODA* complex remained in the organic layer in the presence of water and it was determined that even at low concentrations of Cu the bulk of the copper remained in the organic layer. The conditions employed for the miniemulsion polymerization are reported in Table 13.

TABLE 13 Reaction conditions for miniemulsion ARGET-ATRP of n-BA with BPMODA and BPMODA* as ligands. Entry nBA EBiB CuBr₂ (ppm) Ligand Ascorbic Acid (AA) BPMODA 200 1 0.01 (100) 0.1 0.2 BPMODA* 200 1 0.01 (100) 0.1 0.2 [Brij98]/[Hexadecane] = 2.3/3.6 wt % vs n-BA; 20% solid content; T = 80° C.

Miniemulsions at low copper concentrations were carried out, both BPMODA and BPMODA* were tested at 250 ppm of catalyst. FIG. 8 demonstrates that BPMODA was unable to afford a well controlled polymerization at this catalyst concentration. Neither the kinetics nor the molecular weight grew linearly with time and monomer conversion, respectively. After 40 min of reaction time, the kinetic plot leveled off, indicating the polymerization had died; M_(w)/M_(n) values were broad throughout the polymerization. On the other hand, BPMODA* showed linear first order kinetics, M_(n,GPC) values which correlated to M_(n,th) values and narrow molecular weight distributions at all monomer conversions. To test the limit of BPMODA*, one more miniemulsion was carried out (Entry 3, Table 14) which utilized 100 ppm of CuBr₂/BPMODA* catalyst. Unfortunately, this polymerization was not well controlled. The experimental M_(n) values are significantly above the theoretical values and the M_(w)/M_(n) values are very broad. While this polymerization was uncontrolled it indicates the conditions have to be tuned to afford more control; such as lower polymerization temperatures, increased ligand/copper ratio, and decreased catalyst/ascorbic acid ratios or slow addition of the reducing agent.

TABLE 14 ARGET ATRP of n-BA in miniemulsions with BPMODA and BPMODA*.^(a) Entry^(b) CuBr₂ (ppm) Ligand AA Conv.^(c) M_(n,th) M_(n,GPC) M_(w)/M_(n) ^(d) M_(w)/M_(n) ^(e) 1 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.025 0.88 22 000 21 000 2.64^(f) 2.61 2* 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.025 0.93 23 800 18 900 1.66 1.51 3* 0.02 (100) 0.02 0.01 0.92 23 700 85 100 3.52 4.28 ^(a)[n-BA]:[EBiB] = 200:1, [Brij98]/[Hexadecane] = 2.3/3.6 wt % vs n-BA, T = 80° C.; ^(b)entries labeled with (*) used BPMODA*, all others used BPMODA; ^(c)determined by gravimetry; ^(d)monomer conversion <45% unless otherwise noted; ^(e)M_(w)/M_(n) values of final polymer sample. ^(f)monomer conversion = 66%.

Though AGET ATRP (catalyst ˜2000 ppm) with BPMODA in miniemulsion is common and well-studied, it was important to compare the newly synthesized ligand under identical conditions, after which the catalyst concentration was systematically lowered until ARGET ATRP conditions were reached.

An example of the procedure used for AGET ATRP in miniemulsion procedure formulated with 2000 ppm of CuBr₂/BPMODA catalyst and targeted DP=200 is given as follows; see Table 15 for specific reaction conditions. CuBr₂ (17 mg, 0.078 mmol) and BPMODA (17.4 mg, 0.078 mmol) were dissolved in n-BA (5.0 g, 39.1 mmol) in a round bottom flask at 60° C. to form a solution of the copper complex. The solution was then cooled to room temperature prior to dissolving the initiator EBiB (26 μL, 0.195 mmol) and hexadecane (0.14 mL, 0.826 mmol) in the solution. A 5 mM solution of Brij 98 in deionized water (20.2 mL) was added to the organic n-BA solution and the mixture subjected to sonication in an ice bath; Heat Systems Ultrasonics W-385 sonicator; output control set at 8 and duty cycle at 70% for 1 min. The resulting stable miniemulsion was purged with nitrogen for 30 min. A predeoxygenated aqueous solution of ascorbic acid (AA), 0.7 mL, containing 6.9 mg AA, was injected into the miniemulsion over a period of 3 min to activate the catalyst and start the polymerization. Samples were taken periodically to measure the conversion gravimetrically and to determine the number-average molecular weights by GPC. A series of heterogeneous polymerizations conducted over a range of catalyst concentrations (2000-250 ppm) with BPMODA* consistently resulted in polymerizations with increased control throughout the polymerizations, Table 15.

TABLE 15 A(R)GET ATRP of n-BA in miniemulsion with BPMODA and BPMODA*.^(a) CuBr₂ Entry^(b) (ppm) Ligand AA Conv.^(c) M_(n,th) M_(n,GPC) M_(w)/M_(n) ^(d) M_(w)/M_(n) ^(e) 1 0.4 (2000) 0.4 0.2 0.55 14 100 15 300 2.69 1.23 2* 0.4 (2000) 0.4 0.2 0.54 13 800 13 500 1.54 1.15 3 0.2 (1000) 0.2 0.1 0.87 22 400 18 000 2.49 1.60 4* 0.2 (1000) 0.2 0.1 0.54 14 000 14 000 1.62 1.18 5 0.1 (500) 0.1 0.05 0.87 22 300 18 500 1.61 1.48 6* 0.1 (500) 0.1 0.05 0.84 21 600 18 200 1.45 1.33 7 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.025 0.88 22 000 21 000 2.64^(f) 2.61 8* 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.025 0.93 23 800 18 900 1.66 1.51 ^(a)[n-BA]:[EBiB] = 200:1, [Brij98]/[Hexadecane] = 2.3/3.6 wt % vs n-BA, T = 80° C.; ^(b)entries labeled with (*) used BPMODA*, all others used BPMODA; ^(c)determined by gravimetry; ^(d)monomer conversion <45% unless otherwise noted; ^(e)M_(w)/M_(n) values of final polymer sample. ^(f)monomer conversion = 66%.

Linear first order kinetics were observed for both ligands when 2000 ppm of catalyst was utilized. Both polymerizations exhibited M_(n,GPC) values which strongly correlated the M_(n,th) values as well as low M_(w)/M_(n) values although BPMODA* affords polymers with significantly lower M_(w)/M_(n) values at low monomer conversion. As the concentration of catalyst was lowered, similar trends were seen. At both 1000 and 500 ppm of catalyst, BPMODA* resulted in polymerizations with lower M_(w)/M_(n) values at all monomer conversions. In an attempt the find the “lower limit” for each ligand, the catalyst concentrations were reduced even further. 250 ppm of catalyst resulted in very different polymerizations for each ligand. The first order kinetic plot can be seen in FIG. 8, which shows that the kinetic plots for BPMODA are not linear at this concentration. The plot levels off, indicating the polymerization has stopped. The number average molecular weight does not grow linearly with monomer conversion and the polymerization stops at 90% conversion. Additionally, the M_(w)/M_(n) values are quite high, >2.5, throughout the polymerization. However, when an identical polymerization was carried out with BPMODA*, a significant increase in control was seen. BPMODA* afforded linear first order kinetics, M_(n,GPC) values which had a reasonable correlation to the theoretical values and M_(w)/M_(n)<1.5 throughout the polymerization. While the polymerization with BPMODA* at 250 ppm of catalyst was not ideal, it did offer much more control than the catalyst complex formed with BPMODA, indicating that a true ARGET miniemulsion ATRP is possible.

Example 7 Other Novel Ligands for ATRP Miniemulsion Polymerizations

Two ligands with structures similar to BPED, which has K_(ATRP) in the same range as TPMA in bulk/solution polymerizations and provides good performance under ARGET conditions, were synthesized in a two steps process shown in the following schematic. The ligands were designed to be more hydrophobic by replacing the methyl-groups on the amines with octadecyl groups and then the activity of one potential ligand was increased by incorporation of three EDGs on the pyridine fragments present in the ligand. In the first step N,N′-ethylenebis(stearamide), (A), was reduced to N,N′-ethylenebis(octadecane), (B), using LiAlH₄ as a reducing agent in THF at 60° C. over an 18 h period. Next, the amine was alkylated using 2-picolyl chloride hydrochloride or 2-chloromethyl-4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridine hydrochloride under basic conditions to obtain BPED-OD and BPED-OD*, respectively. All intermediates and final products were obtained in high yield and analyzed by ¹H NMR which showed that the products were obtained in high purity.

7B) Polymerizations with BPED-OD and BPED-OD*

Bulk: ARGET ATRP of BMA with Sn^(II)(EH)₂ as a reducing agent was conducted with BPED-OD/CuCl₂ and BPED*-OD/CuCl₂. The polymerizations were carried out in 20% anisole, to assist in following conversion, at 60° C. with a targeted DP=200; conditions and results are summarized in Table 16 and compared to TPMA.

TABLE 16 ARGET ATRP (RA = Sn^(II)) of BMA with EBPA/BPED*-OD/CuCl₂, EBPA/BPED-OD/CuCl₂, and of nBA with EBiB/TPMA/CuBr₂.^(a) Entry Monomer Initiator CuX₂ t (h) Conv. M_(n,GPC) MWD BPED-OD BMA EBPA CuCl₂ 22.5 0.64 18 000 1.16 BPED*-OD BMA EBPA CuCl₂ 23.5 0.63 16 700 1.17 TPMA nBA EBiB CuBr₂ 5 0.37 10 500 1.16 ^(a)[M]:[I]:[CuX₂]:[L]:[Sn^(II)(EH)₂] = 200:1:0.1:0.3:0.1, T = 60° C.

All three ligands form catalysts that provide similar rates of polymerization as well as linear first-order kinetics, and experimental molecular weights which coordinate well with theoretical values. The three polymers synthesized all have narrow final molecular weight distributions near M_(w)/M_(n)=1.16.

Emulsion: The partition coefficient of CuBr₂/BPED*-OD in nBA/Water (w/w)=30/100 was determined and showed that nearly all of the catalyst remains in the organic phase confirming that this ligand offered extremely high partition coefficients. Both ligands, BPED-OD and BPED*-OD, were tested under miniemulsion conditions. To allow for a comparison with BPMODA*, 500 ppm of catalyst was utilized when polymerizing BMA as shown in Table 17. Linear first order kinetics was observed for both ligands however, the BPED-OD based catalyst complex formed a polymer with broader molecular weight distributions while BPED*-OD afforded polymers with lower MWD values indicating that BPED*-OD can control a miniemulsion ATRP at low catalyst concentrations.

TABLE 17 AGET ATRP of n-BA with BPMODA* and BMA with BPED-OD and BPED*- OD in miniemulsion.^(a) Entry M I CuBr₂ (ppm) Conv. M_(n,th) M_(n,GPC) MWD BPMODA* nBA EBiB 0.1 (500) 0.84 21 600 18 200 1.33 BPED-OD BMA EBPA 0.1 (500) 0.73 20 600 21 100 1.54 BPED*-OD BMA EBPA 0.1 (500) 0.80 22 900 18 300 1.23 ^(a)[M]:[I]:[CuBr₂]:[L]:[AA] = 200:1:0.1:0.1:0.4, [Brij98]/[Hexadecane] = 2.3/3.6 wt % vs monomer, T =80° C.

Miniemulsion polymerizations conducted with BPED-OD and BPED*-OD with 500 ppm of catalyst indicated that BPED-OD is not active enough to afford a well controlled polymerization. Therefore the project was continued with only BPED*-OD. The catalyst was lowered to 250 ppm while maintaining a targeted DP=200. Table 18 outlines the polymerization conditions and results.

TABLE 18 AGET ATRP (RA = AA) of BMA with EBPA/DOD-BPED*/CuBr₂ and of nBA with EBiB/BPMODA*/CuBr₂ in miniemulsions. Entry BMA EBPA CuBr₂ (ppm) Ligand AA Conv. M_(n,th) M_(n,GPC) MWD BPED*-OD 200 1  0.1 (500) 0.1 0.04 0.80 22 900 18 300 1.23 BPED*-OD 200 1 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.02 0.77 21 900 18 500 1.47 BPMODA* 200 1 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.02 0.93 23 800 18 900 1.51 BPED*-OD 200 1 0.05 (250) 0.05 0.02 0.51 14 500 85 000 1.32 *[Brij98]/[Hexadecane] = 2.3/3.6 wt % vs monomer, T = 80° C.;

BPED*-OD offers linear first-order kinetics at both catalyst concentrations. In general the polymerizations proceeded in the same manner, although slightly more control was afforded with the increased concentration of catalyst.

Example 8 Additional New Ligands

8A) Tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine (TQMA) was synthesized because it should exhibit similar activity to TPMA but with increased steric effects which may be advantageous in terms of lower rearrangement energies when going from Cu^(II) to Cu^(I), thereby providing better control and faster rate. The procedure is summarized in Scheme 15. The increased activity of the complexes can be determined as peak-to-peak separations (ΔEp) from CV and should be close to Nernstian value. It should also prevent other side reactions (e.g. reaction with other Cu complexes like disproportionation).

First, 2-(aminomethyl)quinoline was stirred with Na₂CO₃ and TBABr in 75 mL DCM for 1 h. Triacetoxyborohydride was weight in a vial and added to the solution and stirred for 20 min. Finally the aldehyde was added. The reaction colour changed from light brown over green to red brown. The mixture was stirred overnight. After 21 h the reaction is quenched with sodium bicarbonate solution and stirred for an additional hour. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc three times and the combined organic layer dried over MgSO₄ and the solvent was evaporated to give a deep red crude product (m=1.612 g). ¹H-NMR analysis shows impurities with EtOAc and suggests some impurities in the aromatic region. ESI-MS revealed the major compound is the correct product.

8B) Synthesis of N,N-Dimethyl-N′,N′-bis(2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylbenzyl)ethylenediamine

As indicated in scheme 16, it was envisioned that EDGs could be introduced into other potential ligand structure to change the activity of a catalyst formed with a transition metal in a polymerization reaction. In aqueous formaldehyde (37%, 3.26, 0.040 mol) solution of N,N-dimethylethylenediamine (1.00 g, 0.011 mol) and triethylamine (V=0.500 ml, 0.004 mol) as catalyst was added to a solution of 2,4-dimethylphenol (3.0 g, 0.025 mol) in 15 mL EtOH and 3 mL water. The resulting solution was kept in a water bath (50° C.) for 47 h. The colourless crystals formed were filtered, washed with cold MeOH (2×10 ml) and dried. Yield 2.76 g (70.4%). ¹H-NMR was in agreement with the structure of the ligand. Complexes were formed with Fe(OTf)₂ and FeCl₃ and CV values indicated they were active ATRP catalysts.

8C) 2,4-dimethyl-6-bis(2-(diethylamino)-ethyl)aminomethylphenol

N,N,N′,N′-Tetraethyldiethylenetriamine (38.86 mmol) and paraformaldehyde (38.86 mmol) were weighed into a 100 mL Schlenk flask. The mixture was stirred and heated to 80° C. for 2 h under nitrogen. Afterwards a solution of 2,4-dimethylphenol (39 mmol) in 25 mL anhydrous MeOH was added and the solution stirred under reflux for 24 h. After filtration of the reaction mixture and concentration of the solution in vacuo the product was obtained as dark yellow oil, 12.241 g (90.1%). No further purification before the next step was necessary.

Example 9 Linear Salan Iron Complexes and Tripodal Phenolate Iron Complexes

A series of phenolate ligands were prepared in order to determine the effect “anionic” donor atoms on the reducing power of copper and iron complexes. As noted above, and shown in Schemes 16 and 17, the ligands should consist out of phenolate moieties and aliphatic amine or pyridine donors. The corresponding iron complexes, Scheme 18, were prepared and CV analysis of the complexes were carried out. The CVs are shown in FIG. 8 and showed the most negative E_(1/2) in comparison to the other tripodal ligands and [X][FeCl₄]⁻ species, Table 19.

TABLE 19 Comparison of E_(1/2) values of synthesized iron complexes with literature. Ligand E_(1/2) vs SCE [mV] E_(1/2) vs Fc/Fc⁺ [mV] C1 −570 −960 C2 −400 −790 C3 −380 −770 [FeCl₄]^(−[a]) — ~−(410-440) ^([a])from Ref: Eckenhoff, W. T.; Biernesser, A. B.; Pintauer, T. Inorg Chim Acta 2012, 382, 84.

The addition of TBACl show an interesting trend in the measured CV's, the iron redox couple becomes more and more reversible, FIG. 9. Especially the aniodic oxidation from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ is affected, whereas the cathodic reduction does not change significantly. This is true for both complexes (salan+tripodal complexes). To sum up increasing the chloride concentration in the mixture improves the reformation of the deactivator [Fe³⁺LCl]. Initially one observed poor deactivation in an ATRP polymerization with these ligands but the addition of a salt with the same halogen counterion increased the rate of deactivation and improved PDI of the formed polymer.

Example 10 Use for TPEN* Ligand for ICAR ATRP of BA

The conditions were as follows: [BA]/[TPEN*]/[EBiB]/[AIBN]/[CuCl₂]=160/0.006/1/0.2/0.0016, BA:Anisole 4:1, T=60° C., 10 ppm CuCl₂. The reaction yielded polymer with a linear increase in conversion vs. time reaching 90 conversion after 4.5 h. while using only 10 ppm of Cu(II). 

1. A catalyst complex for a redox-based atom transfer radical addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the catalyst comprising: a transition metal; and a ligand comprising from 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, wherein the ligand forms a ligand/metal catalyst complex with the transition metal.
 2. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the one or more electron donating substituents are located on a ring atom that is meta- or para- to the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or the nitrogen of the heteroaromatic ring.
 3. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the anionic heteroatomic donor substituent is selected from —O⁻, —S⁻, —CO₂ ⁻, —SO₃ ⁻, and —NR″⁻, where R″ is —H or (C₁-C₆)alkyl.
 4. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the one or more electron donating substituents are independently selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R, where R is selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl.
 5. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the one or more electron donating substituents exhibit a negative Hammett substitution constant for the ligand.
 6. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand comprises one or more pyridine or quinoline moieties wherein at least one pyridine moiety comprises one or more electron donating substituents in a position meta- or para- to the pyridine nitrogen atom.
 7. The catalyst complex according to claim 6, wherein the ligand comprises a structure selected from N-(alkyl)pyridylmethanimine, 2,2′-bipyridine, N′,N″-dimethyl-N′,N″-bis(pyridine-2-yl)methyl)ethane-1,2-diamine, 2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine, N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(2-pyridyl)methyl]ethylenediamine, tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine, bis[2-(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)pyridylmethyl]octadecylamine, N,N′-bis(pyridine-2-yl-methyl-3-hexoxo-3-oxopropyl)ethane-1,2-diamine, or bis(2-quinolylmethyl)pyridyl-2-methylamine, wherein at least one pyridine ring comprises one or more electron donating substituents in a position meta- or para- to the pyridine nitrogen atom.
 8. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand has a structure:

wherein each R′ is independently an electron donating substituent selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R; where each R is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; each R¹ is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; and k, m, n and p are each independently an integer from 0 to 3 provided that at least one of k, m, n, and p is not zero.
 9. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand has a structure selected from the group consisting of (4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA*-1), bis(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA*-2), tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl]amine (TPMA*-3), (4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-OMe), bis(4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-OMe-2), tris((4-methoxy)-pyridin-2-yl)meth)l-amine (TPMA-OMe-3), (4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂), bis(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-2), tris(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-yl)methyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-3), bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-octadecylamine (BPMODA*), N,N′-bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl-octadecyl)ethylenediamine (BPED*-OD), N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPEN*), N-methyl-N,N′,N′-tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPMEN*), N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-bis(2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylbenzyl)ethylenediamine, 2,4-dimethyl-6-bis(2-(diethylamino)-ethyl)aminomethylphenol, and tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine (TQMA).
 10. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand is a bipyridine ligand comprising a straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, a branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, an alkoxy group, or an N,N-dialkylamine group at a position para- to one or both of the bipyridine nitrogen atoms.
 11. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand further comprises one or more electron withdrawing groups on one or more of the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring.
 12. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the transition metal is copper or iron.
 13. The catalyst complex according to claim 1 wherein the catalyst complex catalyzes a controlled radical polymerization reaction.
 14. The catalyst complex according to claim 13, wherein the controlled radical polymerization reaction is selected from an atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), a reverse ATRP, an SR&NI ATRP, an ICAR ATRP, a RAFT polymerization, a SARA ATRP, an e-ATRP, an AGET ATRP or an ARGET ATRP.
 15. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst complex has a catalyst activity that is greater than or equal to 100 times the activity of a catalyst complex comprising a transition metal and a ligand wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring does not comprise an electron donating substituent.
 16. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the ligand is selected so that the catalyst complex is at least partially soluble in a liquid reaction medium.
 17. The catalyst complex according to claim 16, wherein the liquid reaction medium is a bulk medium, a hydrophilic liquid reaction medium or a hydrophobic liquid reaction medium.
 18. The catalyst complex according to claim 16, wherein the liquid reaction medium is an aqueous liquid reaction medium.
 19. The catalyst complex according to claim 16, wherein the liquid reaction medium is a biphasic reaction medium wherein the catalyst complex is at least partially soluble in a dispersed hydrophilic phase or a dispersed hydrophobic phase of the biphasic reaction medium.
 20. The catalyst complex according to claim 1, wherein the transition metal forms the catalyst complex with one or more of the ligand molecules.
 21. A ligand for forming a transition metal catalyst capable of catalyzing a redox-based atom transfer radial addition reaction, an atom transfer radical coupling reaction, or a controlled radical polymerization reaction, the ligand comprising: 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents, wherein the ligand has a structure:

wherein each R′ is independently an electron donating substituent selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R; where each R is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; each R¹ is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; and k, m, n and p are each independently an integer from 0 to 3 provided that at least one of k, m, n, and p is not zero.
 22. The ligand according to claim 21, wherein the ligand has a structure selected from the group consisting of (4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA*-1), bis(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA*-2), tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl]amine (TPMA*-3), (4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-OMe), bis(4-methoxy-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-OMe-2), tris((4-methoxy)-pyridin-2-yl)methy)l-amine (TPMA-OMe-3), (4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂), bis(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-2), tris(4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-pyridin-2-yl)methyl)-amine (TPMA-NMe₂-3), bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-ylmethyl)-octadecylamine (BPMODA*), N,N′-bis((4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl-octadecyl)ethylenediamine (BPED*-OD), N,N,N′,N′-tetra[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPEN*), N-methyl-N,N′,N′-tris[(4-methoxy-3,5-dimethyl)-pyrid-2-yl)methyl]ethylenediamine (TPMEN*), N,N-dimethyl-N′,N′-bis(2-hydroxy-3,5-dimethylbenzyl)ethylenediamine, 2,4-dimethyl-6-bis(2-(diethylamino)-ethyl)aminomethylphenol, and tris(2-quinolinylmethyl)amine (TQMA).
 23. The ligand according to claim 20, further comprising one or more electron withdrawing groups on one or more of the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring.
 24. The ligand according to claim 23, wherein the one or more electron withdrawing groups comprise —F, —Cl, —Br, —NO₂, —C(═O)OR¹, or —C(═O)NR¹ ₂.
 25. A system for conducting a controlled radical polymerization reaction comprising: radically (co)polymerizable monomers; an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups; less than 500 ppm of a catalyst complex comprising: a transition metal; and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents; and optionally, a solvent.
 26. The system according to claim 25, wherein the system comprises less than 100 ppm of the catalyst complex.
 27. The system according to claim 25, wherein the system comprises less than 50 ppm of the catalyst complex.
 28. The system according to claim 25, wherein the controlled radical polymerization reaction is selected from an atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), a reverse ATRP, an SR&NI ATRP, an ICAR ATRP, a RAFT polymerization, a SARA ATRP, an e-ATRP, an AGET ATRP or an ARGET ATRP.
 29. The system according to claim 25, wherein the transition metal is copper or iron.
 30. The system according to claim 25, wherein the ligand has a structure:

wherein each R′ is independently an electron donating substituent selected from straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, —NR₂, hydroxylamine, hydrazine, —N(R)C(═O)R, —NHC(═O)NR₂, —OR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —CH₂CH(OR)CH₃, —CH₂NR₂, —NHC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NR₂, —CH₂Si(CH₃)₃, —OCH₂CH₂OR, or —NHCH₂SO₃R; where each R is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; each R¹ is independently selected from —H, straight chain (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl, or branched (C₁-C₂₀)alkyl; and k, m, n and p are each independently an integer from 0 to 3 provided that at least one of k, m, n, and p is not zero.
 31. A transition metal mediated controlled polymerization process comprising polymerizing radically (co)polymerizable monomer(s) in the presence of: an initiator comprising one or more radically transferable atoms or groups; less than 500 ppm of a catalyst complex comprising: a transition metal; and a ligand comprising 2 to 6 heteroatom containing groups capable of bonding to or chelating with a transition metal, wherein at least one of the heteroatom containing groups comprises a structure selected from an aromatic ring comprising an anionic heteroatomic donor substituent or a nitrogen containing heteroaromatic ring, wherein the aromatic ring or heteroaromatic ring further comprises one or more electron donating substituents; and optionally, a solvent.
 32. The transition metal mediated controlled polymerization process according to claim 31, wherein the controlled radical polymerization reaction is selected from an atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), a reverse ATRP, an SR&NI ATRP, an ICAR ATRP, a RAFT polymerization, a SARA ATRP, an e-ATRP, an AGET ATRP or an ARGET ATRP. 